ื™ืขืงื‘ ืฉื˜ื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื’ (1887โ€“1947)

<ื‘ื”ื›ื ื”>

Jacob Steinberg

    ื™ืขืงื‘ ืฉื˜ื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื’, ืžืฉื•ืจืจ ื•ืžืกืคืจ ืขื‘ืจื™, ื‘ื‘ื™ืœืื™ื” ืฆืจืงื•ื‘, ืื•ืงืจืื™ื ื”, ื‘ื™ืดื‘ ื‘ืืœื•ืœ ืชืจืžืดื–, 1 ื‘ืกืคื˜ืžื‘ืจ 1887 ืœืื‘ื™ื• ื”ืฉื•ื—ื˜. ืœืžื“ ื‘ืฆืขื™ืจื•ืชื• ื‘ืณื—ื“ืจืณ ื•ื‘ื™ืฉื™ื‘ื” ื•ืจื›ืฉ ื‘ื›ื•ื—ื•ืช ืขืฆืžื• ื”ืฉื›ืœื” ื›ืœืœื™ืช. ื‘ื”ื™ื•ืชื• ื‘ืŸ 14 ืขื–ื‘ ืืช ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื•ืจื™ื• ื•ืขืงืจ ืœืื•ื“ืกื”; ืฉื ื ืชื•ื•ื“ืข ืœื‘ื™ืืœื™ืง ื•ืœื‘ื ื™ ื—ื•ื’ื•. ืฉื™ืจื• ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื”ืชืคืจืกื ื‘ืขืชื•ืŸ ืœื‘ื ื™ึพื”ื ืขื•ืจื™ื, ืดืขื•ืœื ืงื˜ืŸืด (1901), ื•ื‘ืกืžื•ืš ื”ื—ืœ ืœืคืจืกื ืžืฉื™ืจื™ื• ื‘ืดื”ืฉืœื•ื—ืด ื•ื‘ื›ืชื‘ื™ึพืขืช ืขื‘ืจื™ื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื. ื‘ึพ1903 ืขืงืจ ืœื•ื•ืจืฉื”; ืฉื ื”ื™ื” ืžื‘ืื™ึพื‘ื™ืชื• ืฉืœ ื™. ืœ. ืคืจืฅ, ื•ืฉื ื’ื ื™ืฆื ืœืื•ืจ ืงื•ื‘ืฅึพืฉื™ืจื™ื• ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื‘ืขื‘ืจื™ืช (ืดืฉื™ืจื™ืืด ; ืชืจืกืดื”), ืฉื–ื™ื›ื” ืื•ืชื• ื‘ืฉื‘ื—ื™ ื‘ื™ืืœื™ืง. ื‘ืฉื ื™ื ืชืจืกืดื—โ€“ืชืจืกืดื˜ ื”ืชืคืจืกืžื• ื‘ื›ืชื‘ื™ึพืขืช ืžื—ื–ื•ืชื™ื• ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื ื‘ืขื‘ืจื™ืช, ื•ื‘ืฉื ืช ืชืจืกืดื˜ ื™ืฆื ืœืื•ืจ ื‘ื•ื•ืจืฉื” ืงื•ื‘ืฅ ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืžืฉืœื• ื‘ื™ื™ื“ื™ืฉ (ืดื’ืขื–ืืžืขืœื˜ืข ืฉืจื™ืคื˜ืขืŸืด), ื•ื‘ื• ืกื™ืคื•ืจื™ื ืงืฆืจื™ื ื•ืฉื™ืจื™ื. ื‘ืกืžื•ืš ื”ื•ืคื™ืขื• ืฉื ื™ ืงื‘ืฆื™ ืฉื™ืจื™ื ืขื‘ืจื™ื™ื ืžืฉืœื•: ืดืกืคืจ ื”ืกืื˜ื™ืจื•ืชืด (1909) โ€“ ืฉืฆื™ื™ืŸ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื ื™ื›ืจ ื‘ืกื’ื ื•ื ื•, ื•ืืฉืจ ื ืชืงื‘ืœ ื‘ืžื•ืจืชึพืจื•ื— โ€“ ื•ืดืกืคืจ ื”ื‘ื“ื™ื“ื•ืชืด (1910). ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื”ื™ื” ื‘ืงื™ื™ื‘ ื™ืฆื ืœืฉื•ื•ื™ื™ืฅ, ื•ื ืจืื” ืฉืœืžื“ ื–ืžืŸึพืžื” ื‘ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ืช ื‘ืจืŸ. ืขื ืฉื•ื‘ื• ืœื•ื•ืจืฉื” ื”ืฆื˜ืจืฃ ืœืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืขืชื•ืŸ ื”ื™ื™ื“ื™ ืดื“ืขืจ ืคืจื™ื™ื ื“ืด; ืฉื’ื ื”ืงื“ื™ืฉ ืžื•ืกืฃ ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ืœืฉื˜ื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื’ ืฉื ื—ืฉื‘ ืื– ืžื‘ื—ื™ืจื™ ื”ืกื•ืคืจื™ื ื”ืฆืขื™ืจื™ื ื‘ื™ื™ื“ื™ืฉ. ื‘ืดื“ืขืจ ืคืจื™ื™ื ื“ืด ื ืชืคืจืกืžื• ื’ื ืคืจืงื™ื ืžืŸ ื”ืคื•ืืžื” ืฉืœื• ืดืจื•ืกืœืื ื“ืด; ื”ืกืคืจ ื™ืฆื ืœืื•ืจ ื‘ึพ1914. ืขืจื‘ ืคืจื•ืฅ ืžืœื—ืžืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืขืœื” ืฉื˜ื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื’ ืœืืจืฅึพื™ืฉืจืืœ, ื•ืžืื– ื ื™ืชืง ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื”ื—ืœื˜ื™ ืืช ื–ื™ืงืชื• ืœื™ื™ื“ื™ืฉ, ื‘ื”ืฉืžื™ืขื• ื”ืกืชื™ื™ื’ื•ื™ื•ืช ืžืœืฉื•ืŸ ื–ื• ื›ื›ืœื™ ืœืžื‘ืข ืกืคืจื•ืชื™. ื‘ืืจืฅ ื”ืฉืชืชืฃ ื‘ื‘ื™ืžื•ืช ืžืงื•ืจื‘ื•ืช ืœืชื ื•ืขืช ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” โ€“ ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ื‘ืดื”ืคื•ืขืœ ื”ืฆืขื™ืจืด ื•ื‘ืดื“ื‘ืจืด โ€“ ื•ื›ืŸ ื”ื™ื” ืžืขื•ืจื›ื™ ืดืžืื–ื ื™ืืด, ื‘ื˜ืื•ืŸ ืื’ื•ื“ืช ื”ืกื•ืคืจื™ื ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ื. ื›ืืŸ ื’ื ื”ื•ืกื™ืฃ ืืช ืชื—ื•ื ื”ืžืกื” ื”ืืžื ื•ืชื™ืช ืœืชื—ื•ืžื™ ื™ืฆื™ืจืชื•. ื‘ึพ1921 ื™ืฆื ืœื‘ืจืœื™ืŸ. ื‘ืฉื ืชื™ื™ื ืฉืฉื”ื” ืฉื ื”ื•ืฆื™ื ืœืื•ืจ ืืช ืืกื•ืคืช ืฉื™ืจื™ื• ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ื™ื (ืชืจืคืดื’) ื•ืืช ืกื™ืคื•ืจื™ื• (ืชืจืคืดื’). ื‘ืฉื•ื‘ื• ืœืืจืฅ ื—ื–ืจ ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื• ื”ืกืคืจื•ืชื™ืช, ืฉื›ืœืœื” ื’ื ืชืจื’ื•ื ื•ืขืจื™ื›ื”. ื›ืš ืขืจืš ืืช ื›ืชื‘ื™ ืืจืœื•ื–ื•ืจื•ื‘ ืฉืืช ืื—ื•ืชื• ื ืฉื ืœืืฉื” ื‘ึพ1929. ื‘ืฉื ื•ืชื™ื• ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช ืžื™ืขื˜ ืฉื˜ื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื’ ืœืคืจืกื. ื‘ืฉื ืช ืชืจืฆืดื– ื›ื•ื ืกื• ื›ืชื‘ื™ื• ื‘ึพ3 ื›ืจื›ื™ื, ื•ืขืœื™ื”ื ื”ื•ืขื ืง ืœื• ืคืจืกึพื‘ื™ืืœื™ืง. ืœืื—ืจ ืžื•ืชื• ื”ื•ืคื™ืขื• (ืชืฉื™ืดื–) ื›ืชื‘ื™ื• ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ื™ื ื‘ืงื•ื‘ืฅ ืื—ื“ โ€“ ืœืžืขื˜ ืจืฉื™ืžื•ืชึพื”ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจืช ืฉืœื• ื•ืžื—ื–ื•ืชื™ื•, ื•ื›ืŸ ืกื™ืคื•ืจื™ื ื•ืฉื™ืจื™ื ืฉืคืกืœ. ืฉื™ืจื™ื, ืกื™ืคื•ืจื™ื ื•ืžื—ื–ื•ืช โ€“ ืžื”ื ื‘ืชืจื’ื•ื ืžื™ื™ื“ื™ืฉ โ€“ ืฉืœื ื ื›ืœืœื• ื‘ืžื”ื“ื•ืจื” ื–ื• ื™ืฆืื• ืœืื•ืจ ื‘ึพ1976 ื‘ืขืจื™ื›ืช ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื›ื”ืŸ.
    ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืฉื˜ื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื’ ื”ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ืช ื•ืจื‘ืชึพื”ืื ืคื™ืŸ, ืื™ื ื” ื ืขื ื™ืช ื‘ื ืงืœ ืœื ืกื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื”ื’ื“ืจื” ื•ืžื™ืคื•ื™ ืžื›ืœื™ืœื™ื, ืžื”ึพื’ื ืฉืžื—ืงืจ ืฉื˜ื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื’ ื”ื•ื ืจืง ื‘ืจืืฉื™ืชื•, ืฉืžืงืฆืช ืžื›ืชื‘ื™ื• ื˜ืจื ื ื’ืืœื• ืžื›ืชื‘ื™ึพืขืช ืฉืื™ื ื ื‘ื”ืฉื’ึพื™ื“, ื•ืฉื’ื ืืœื” ื”ืžื›ื•ื ืกื™ื ื‘ืกืคืจื™ื ืœื•ืงื™ื ื‘ืฉื™ื‘ื•ืฉื™ ื”ื“ืคืกื” ื•ืขืจื™ื›ื” ื—ืžื•ืจื™ื. ืœื›ืš ื™ืฉ ืœื”ื•ืกื™ืฃ ืืช ืจืชื™ืขืชื• ืฉืœ ืฉื˜ื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื’ ืžืœื“ื•ืŸ ื‘ืคื•ืžื‘ื™ ื‘ื™ืฆื™ืจืชื• ื•ื‘ืงื•ืจื•ืชึพื—ื™ื™ื•.
    ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ืชื—ื•ืžื™ื ื•ื”ื–ืณืื ืจื™ื ืฉืขืกืง ื‘ื”ื โ€“ ืื ื‘ืขื‘ืจื™ืช ื•ืื ื‘ื™ื™ื“ื™ืฉ, ื‘ืฉื™ืจ, ื‘ืžื—ื–ื”, ื‘ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ื•ื‘ืžืกื” โ€“ ื”ื’ื™ืข ืฉื˜ื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื’ ืœื”ืฉื’ื™ื ื ื›ื‘ื“ื™ื, ื›ืฉื”ื•ื ืžืฉื›ืœืœ ื‘ื”ื“ืจื’ื” ืืช ืขืฆืžื™ื•ืชื•. ืฆืขื“ื™ื• ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื ื‘ืฉื™ืจื” ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ืช ืขื•ืžื“ื™ื ื‘ืกื™ืžืŸ ื”ืฉืคืขืชื• ื”ื ื™ื›ืจืช ืฉืœ ื‘ื™ืืœื™ืง ื•ื”ื ื•ืกื— ื”ื‘ื™ืืœื™ืงืื™, ื•ืื™ืœื• ืจืืฉื™ืช ืฉื™ืจืชื• ื‘ื™ื™ื“ื™ืฉ ื”ื™ื ื‘ื—ื–ืงืช ื‘ื•ืกืจ ืฉื’ืจืชื™. ื•ืื•ืœื, ืžืงืจืงืข ื‘ื•ืกืจ ื–ื• ืฆืžื— ื‘ืžืฉืš ืฉื ื™ื ืžืขื˜ื•ืชึพื™ื—ืกื™ืช, ืงื•ืœื• ืฉืœ ืžื—ื‘ืจ ื”ืคื•ืืžื” ื”ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื” ืดืจื•ืกืœืื ื“ืด. ืฉื™ืžืช ื”ื“ื’ืฉ ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” (ืดื›ื™ ื”ืฉื™ืจื” ื”ื™ื ื›ื•ืœื” ืฆื•ืจื”ืด) ื•ื‘ืดืžืฉืœืด, ื”ืดื”ืฉื•ื•ืื”ืด, ื”ืดืงื™ืจื•ื‘ืด, ืื• ื”ืดื“ืžื™ื•ืŸืด (ื“ื™ืžื•ื™), ื‘ืชื•ืจืช ืดื—ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ืฉืœ ืžืœื™ื ืฉื”ื ื”ื• ืžื”ื•ืช, ืชื•ืืจ ืœืจื–ื™ ื—ื™ื™ื, ืจืฉืช ืืœื”ื™ืช ืœืจื—ืฉื™ ื ืคืฉ ื‘ืœืชื™ึพื ืชืคืกื™ืืด, ื‘ื“ึพื‘ื‘ื“ ืขื ืฉื›ื™ื—ื•ืชื ืฉืœ ืฆื™ื•ืจื™ ื”ืฉืžืžื•ืŸ ื•ื”ืกื ื•ื•ืจื™ื, ื—ื™ื“ืช ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ืฉืื™ื ื” ื ืคืชืจืช, ื”ืฉื›ืจื•ืŸ ื•ื”ื—ืœื•ื, ื”ืจืขืœ ื•ื”ืจืงื‘ื•ืŸ โ€“ ื›ืœ ืืœื” ืžืขื™ื“ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื–ื™ืงื” ืœืฉืœืฉืœืช ืืจื•ื›ื” ืฉืœ ืกื™ืžื‘ื•ืœื™ืกื˜ื™ื ื•ื“ืงืื“ื ื˜ื™ื ืื™ืจื•ืคื™ื ืฉืจืืฉื™ืชื” ื‘ื‘ื•ื“ืœืจ. ื•ืื•ืœื, ื”ื“ื’ืฉึพืฉื›ื ื’ื“ ื‘ืดืฆื™ืจื•ืคื™ ืจืฉืžื™ื ื—ื™ื™ืืด ื•ื‘ื—ื•ืฉื™ื ืดื ืชื•ื ื™ื ืœื˜ื‘ืขืด ืงื•ืฆื‘ ื’ื‘ื•ืœ ืœื ื”ื™ื” ื”ืžื˜ืืคื™ื–ื™ืช ืื—ืจ ื”ื‘ืœืชื™ ื ืชืคืก ื•ื”ืขืจื˜ื™ืœืื™. ืจืื™ื™ืชื• ื”ืคืกื™ื›ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช ื”ื—ื•ื“ืจืช, ื›ื•ื—ื• ื‘ื”ืขืžื“ืช ื’ื•ื•ื ื™ื ื•ื—ืชื™ืจืชื• ืœืดืขืœื™ืœืช ื—ื™ื™ืืด ืžืงื ื™ื ืœื• ืžืงื•ื ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžืคืจืฉื™ ื”ืžืฆื™ืื•ืช ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ื‘ืกืคืจื•ืช ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ืช ื”ื—ื“ืฉื”.
    ืกื’ื ื•ื ื• ืฉืœ ืฉื˜ื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื’ ื‘ืฉื™ืจื™ื• ื•ื‘ืจืฉื™ืžื•ืชื™ื• ืฉืœืื—ืจ 1914 โ€“ ื‘ื ื™ื’ื•ื“ ื‘ื•ืœื˜ ืœืœืฉื•ื ื ื”ื’ืžื™ืฉื” ื•ื”ืžืชื ื’ื ืช ืฉืœ ืฉื™ืจื™ื ืžื•ืงื“ืžื™ื, ื›ืฉื™ืจื™ ืดืกืคืจ ื”ืกืื˜ื™ืจื•ืชืด โ€“ ืืจื›ืื™ืกื˜ื™ ื•ื›ื‘ื“ึพืฆืขื“, ืกื˜ืื˜ื™, ื•ืœืขืชื™ื ื’ื ืžืกื•ืจื‘ืœ, ื•ืขืึพื–ืืช ืžืžื•ืงื“ ื•ืกื•ื’ืกื˜ื™ื•ื•ื™. ืืคืฉืจ ืฉืฉื˜ื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื’ ื”ื•ื ื”ืžืฉื•ืจืจ ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉื”ืฉื›ื™ืœ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ื‘ืกื’ื ื•ืŸ ืฉืžืจื ื™ ืžืžื™ืŸ ื–ื” ืชื—ื•ืฉืชึพื—ื™ื™ื ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ืช ื‘ื™ืกื•ื“ื”. ื–ื™ืงืชื• ืœืœืฉื•ืŸึพื”ืžืงืจื โ€“ ื–ื™ืงื” ื”ืžืชื‘ื˜ืืช ื‘ืฉืคืข ืฉืื™ืœื•ืช ื•ืจืžื™ื–ื•ืช โ€“ ื‘ื™ืŸึพื”ืฉืืจ, ืขืœ ื”ืืžื•ื ื” ื›ื™ ืžืœื•ืชื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ืช ื”ืงื“ื•ืžื” ืฆืœื•ืœื•ืช ื•ืžื”ื•ืงืฆืขื•ืช, ื’ื“ื•ืจื•ืช ื•ื—ื“ื•ืช ืžืชืืจ, ื‘ื‘ื—ื™ื ืช ืดืื‘ื ื™ื ืฉืœืžื•ืช ื•ืœื ื—ื•ืœ ื ื™ื’ืจ ื›ื—ื•ืžืจ ื”ืžืœื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืฉืคื•ืช ื”ื’ืจืžื ื™ื•ืช ื•ื”ืกืœืื•ื•ื™ื•ืชืด. ืืœื ืฉืื™ืŸ ื”ืขื“ืคื” ื–ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืžืœื” ื”ื‘ืจื•ืจื” ืžื•ื ืขืช ื‘ืขื“ื• ืžืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ืžืœื™ื ื•ื‘ืฆื™ืจื•ืคื™ื ืดืžื™ื•ื—ืกื™ืืด, ืฉืดืฆืœืฆื•ืœื ื ืฉืืจ ื–ืจ ืœืื•ื–ืŸ ื”ืฉื•ืžืขืด ื•ืืฉืจ ืดืคืจื•ืฉื ื”ืžืœื ื”ื•ื ื‘ืœืชื™ึพื ื—ืงืจืด. ืฆืžืฆื•ื ื•ื”ืชืืคืงื•ืช ื”ืŸ ืžืœื•ืชึพืžืคืชื— ื‘ืžืฉื ืชื• ื”ืคื™ื•ื˜ื™ืช ืฉืœ ืฉื˜ื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื’; ืžืชื•ืš ื›ืš ื”ื•ื ืžื‘ืงืฉ ืœื”ืขืžื™ื“ ืืช ื”ืฉื™ืจื” ืขืœ ื™ื—ื™ื“ืชึพื”ื™ืกื•ื“ ื”ื˜ื›ื ื™ืช ืฉืœื”, ื”ืฉื•ืจื”, ื•ืขืœ ืชืึพื”ื™ืกื•ื“ ื”ืœืฉื•ื ื™ โ€“ ื”ืฆื™ื•ืจ, ืฉื‘ื›ื•ื—ื• ืœืงืจื‘ ืดืฉื ื™ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ืจื—ื•ืงื™ื ื–ื” ืžื–ื” ื‘ืชื›ืœื™ืช ื”ืจื™ื—ื•ืงืด, ื”ืžืฉืœ ืดื”ืžืจื—ื™ื‘ ืืช ื”ื”ืฉื’ื” ื‘ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ืคืœืื™ื ืฉืœ ื‘ืจืงืด. ืืช ื”ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืกืคืจื•ืช ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ืช ืจื•ืื” ืฉื˜ื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื’ ื‘ืชื•ืœื“ื•ืชื™ื• ืฉืœ ื ื™ื›ื•ืจ ื”ื“ืจื’ืชื™ ืžืŸ ื”ืฉื™ืจื” ื•ืžืขื‘ืจ ืืœ ื”ื“ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื”ืžืฉื•ืœืœ ืดืขืœื™ืœืช ื—ื™ื™ืืด, ืืœ ืดืงืžื— ื”ืžืœื™ืืด ืฉืœ ื”ืคืœืคื•ืœ ื”ืขืงืจ ื•ืื—ื™ื–ืชึพื”ืขื™ื ื™ื™ื. ืœื“ืขืชื• ืืคื™ื™ื ื™ืช ื”ืื“ื™ืฉื•ืช ืœืขืจื›ื™ื ืืกืชื˜ื™ื™ื ืœืขื ืœืœื ืžื•ืœื“ืช,ืœืดื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืžืœืชื—ื”ืด ืงืœื™ึพืชื ื•ืขื”, ื”ื ืคื•ืฆื™ื ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ืชื‘ืœ. ืืช ืขืชื™ื“ื•ืชื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืฉื™ืจื” ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ืช ืจืื” ื‘ืžื•ืชื ื™ื ื‘ื”ืชื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ื“ื™ื•ืงื ื• ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ื‘ืดืจืฆื•ืขืช ื”ืืจืฅ ื”ืฆืจื”, ืืฉืจ ืœื™ื“ ื”ื™ื ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœืด. ืžื‘ื—ื™ื ื” ื–ื• ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืชืืจ ืืช ื”ืคื•ืื˜ื™ืงื” ืฉืœื• ื›ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช.
    ืžื‘ื™ืŸ ื›ึพ45 ืกื™ืคื•ืจื™ื ืฉื›ืชื‘, ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืœืฉืžืจ 21 ื‘ืœื‘ื“. ืขืœื™ืœื•ืชื™ื”ื ืžืชืจื—ืฉื•ืช ื‘ืจื•ื‘ืŸ ื‘ืขื™ื™ืจื•ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื‘ืื•ืงืจืื™ื ื”, ื‘ืชืงื•ืคื” ืฉืœ ืžื”ืคื›ื” ื•ืชืžื•ืจื” ืฉืจืง ืžืขื˜ื™ื ืžื”ื“ื™ื”ืŸ ืžืกืชื ื ื™ื ืืœ ืชื•ืš ื”ืกื™ืคื•ืจ. ืืœื” ื”ื ืกื™ืคื•ืจื™ื ืฆื‘ื•ืขื™ื ืฆื‘ืขื™ึพืฉืงื™ืขื”, ืขืœ ื—ื™ื™ื ื ืžื•ื›ื™ื, ื ื•ื‘ืœื™ื ื•ื ื™ื“ื—ื™ื, ืขืœ ื—ืœื•ืžื•ืช ืฉืœื ื™ื™ืจืฆื• ื•ืขืœ ืชืฉื•ืงื•ืช ืฉืœื ืชื‘ื•ืื ื” ืขืœ ืกื™ืคื•ืงืŸ. ื“ืœื•ืช ื•ืžื—ืœื”, ืคื•ืจืขื ื•ืช ื•ืžื•ื•ืช, ืžื•ืคื™ืขื™ื ื›ืืŸ ืจืง ื›ื’ื™ืœื•ื™ื™ื ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืจืคื™ื•ืŸ ื•ื”ืžืฆื•ืงื” ืฉื‘ืคื ื™ื. ืžืฆื•ืงืช ื”ื›ืœืœ ืžื•ื‘ืœืขืช; ื–ื• ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ ืžื•ื—ืจืคืช ื•ืžื•ืขืฆืžืช โ€“ ืœืื•ึพื“ื•ื•ืงื ื‘ืžื™ืฉืจื™ืŸ. ื—ืœืงื ืฉืœ ื”ืื ื˜ื™ึพื’ื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ื ืฉืœ ืฉื˜ื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื’ ืžื•ื›ืจ ืœื ื• ืžื™ืฆื™ืจื•ืชื™ื”ื ืฉืœ ื‘ื ื™ึพื“ื•ืจื• ื•ืฉืœ ืงื•ื“ืžื™ื•; ื•ืื•ืœื, ื’ื ืœื”ื ื”ืขื ื™ืง ืฆื‘ื™ื•ืŸ ื•ื—ื™ื™ื ืขืฆืžื™ื™ื. ื”ืกื˜ื•ื“ื ื˜ ื”ืžืชื™ื™ืกืจ ื‘ืชื•ื“ืขืช ืขืงืจื•ืชื•, ื‘ืชื—ื•ืฉืช ื”ืคืขืจ ืฉื‘ื™ืŸ ืชืื•ื•ืชื• ื•ืื—ืจื™ืชื”, ื‘ื›ื•ืจื— ื”ืžืื–ื•ื›ื™ืกื˜ื™ึพื›ืžืขื˜ ืœื”ืฆื™ื’ ืขืฆืžื• ืขื™ืจื•ื ื•ืขืจื™ื”, ื ื•ืฉื ื—ื•ืชื ืื•ื˜ื•ื‘ื™ื•ื’ืจืืคื™ ืžื•ื‘ื”ืง. ื’ืœืจื™ื™ืช ื”ื“ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ื ืฉื™ื•ืช ืžืขื•ืฆื‘ืช ื‘ื”ื‘ื ื” ื•ื‘ืงืจื‘ืชึพืœื‘ ื‘ืœืชื™ึพืฉื›ื™ื—ื•ืช. ืฉื˜ื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื’ ืžืกืคืจ ืืช ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ืชืกื›ื•ืœื• ืฉืœ ื”ืืจื•ืก, ื™ืฆืจ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื. ื”ืœืฉื•ืŸ ื˜ืขื•ื ื”, ื•ืžืขื•ื‘ื”; ื•ืื•ืœื, ื”ื“ื—ื™ืกื•ืช ื”ืคื™ื’ื•ืจืื˜ื™ื•ื•ื™ืช โ€“ ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ื‘ืžืกื•ืช ,ืืš ืคื”ึพื•ืฉื ื’ื ื‘ืกื™ืคื•ืจื™ื โ€“ ืžืฉื•ื•ื” ืœืคืจื•ื–ื” ืฉืœ ืฉื˜ื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื’ ืœืขืชื™ื ืืจืฉืช ืฉืœ ืžืื ื™ื™ืจื™ื–ื ื‘ืืจื•ืงื™, ืฉืœื ื‘ื˜ื•ื‘ืชื”.
    ืจืฉื™ืžื•ืชื™ื• ื›ืชื•ื‘ื•ืช ื›ื‘ื™ื‘ื•ืœ ืขืœ ื ื•ืฉืื™ื ืœืขืชึพืžืฆื•ื โ€“ ืขืœ ื”ื—ืžืกื™ืŸ ,ื‘ื™ืชึพื”ืงืคื”, ืจื™ื‘ื•ื™ ื”ืœืฉื•ื ื•ืช, ืขืฆื™ ื“ืงืœ ืฉื ื’ื“ืขื• โ€“ ืืš ืชื›ื ื™ืชื” ื•ืจืฆื™ืคื•ืชื” ืฉืœ ื”ืขืžื“ื” ื”ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจืชื™ืช ืžืคืจื™ื›ื•ืช ืืช ืจื•ืฉื ื”ืžืงืจื™ื•ืช ื•ื”ืืจืขื™ื•ืช. ื›ืืŸ ื ืชืŸ ืฉื˜ื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื’ ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื™ ืœืžื™ืชื•ืก ืดื”ืืœืžื•ื ื™ืด ื•ืดื”ืื‘ ื”ืžืชืืคืงืด ืฉืœื•, ื›ืืŸ ืขื˜ื” ืืช ื’ืœื™ืžืช ื”ืžื•ื›ื™ื— ื”ื—ื•ืฉืฃ ืืช ื“ืœื•ืชื” ืฉืœ ืงื”ื™ืœืชึพืžื”ื’ืจื™ื ืงื˜ื ื” ืœืื•ืจ ื—ื–ื•ืŸึพื”ื ืฆื•ืจื•ืช ื”ืจื—ื•ืง ืฉืœ ื”ืขื‘ืจ ื”ืžืงืจืื™ ื”ืžืคื•ืืจ ื•ื”ืขืชื™ื“ ื”ืžื–ื•ืžืŸึพืœื‘ื•ื ื‘ื—ื“ืฉ ืื•ืžื” ืืช ื ืขื•ืจื™ื”. ื‘ืจืฉื™ืžื•ืชื™ื•, ื›ืžื• ื‘ืกื™ืคื•ืจื™ื• ื•ื‘ืฉื™ืจื™ื•, ืคื ื” ืฉื˜ื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื’ ืืœ ื”ืงื•ืจื ื”ืžื™ื•ื—ืก, ื–ื” ื”ืจืื•ื™ ืœื‘ื•ื ื‘ืกื•ื“ ืดืžืฉืœื™ื ื ืื“ืจื™ืืด, ื•ืœื ืืœ ื”ืดืืกืคืกื•ืฃืด, ืื• ืดื”ืžื•ืŸ ื”ืขืืด, ืฉื‘ื• ื‘ื—ืœ ื•ืืฉืจ ืžืชื”ื™ืœืชื• ื—ื™ืกืจ ื ืคืฉื•. ื’ื ืืช ื”ืžืคืชื— ืœืชื—ื™ื” ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ืช ืจืื” โ€“ ื›ื. ื“. ื’ื•ืจื“ื•ืŸ โ€“ ื‘ืชื™ืงื•ื ื• ื•ื‘ื”ืชื’ื‘ืจื•ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“. ืขืžื“ืชื• ื”ืื™ื ื“ื™ื•ื•ื™ื“ื•ืืœื™ืกื˜ื™ืช ื”ื ื—ืจืฆืช, ืฉื‘ืื” ืฉื•ื‘ึพื•ืฉื•ื‘ ืœื™ื“ื™ ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื™ ื‘ื™ืฆื™ืจืชื• ื•ื‘ืžื’ืขื• ืขื ื”ื‘ืจื™ื•ืช, ื’ืจืžื” ืืช ื‘ื™ื“ื•ื“ื• ื”ืžื–ื”ื™ืจ โ€“ ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ื‘ืฉื ื•ืช ื—ื™ื™ื• ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช. ืœื”ืขืจื›ื” ืžื—ื•ื“ืฉืช, ืงื•ืœืขืชึพื™ื•ืชืจ, ื–ื›ื” ืจืง ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ึพื”ืขืจื›ื™ื ืฉื—ืœ ื‘ืกืคืจื•ืช ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ืช ืœืื—ืจ ืงื•ื ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื”.
    ื™ืขืงื‘ ืฉื˜ื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื’ ื ืคื˜ืจ ื‘ืชืœึพืื‘ื™ื‘ ื‘ื“ืณ ื‘ืชืžื•ื– ืชืฉืดื–, 22 ื‘ื™ื•ื ื™ 1947.


ื™ืขืงื‘ ืฉื˜ื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื’ ื‘ืกืคืจื™ื” ื”ืœืื•ืžื™ืช

ื™ืฆื™ืจื•ืช ื™ืขืงื‘ ืฉื˜ื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื’ ื‘ืคืจื•ื™ืงื˜ ื‘ืŸึพื™ื”ื•ื“ื”

ื ื›ืชื‘ ืขืœึพื™ื“ื™ ื ืชืŸ ื–ืš ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื”ืื ืฆื™ืงืœื•ืคื“ื™ื” ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ืช (ื›ืจืš ืœื, ืชืฉืœืดื˜)
[ืžืงื•ืจื•ืช ื ื•ืกืคื™ื: ืงืจืกืœ, ืชื“ื”ืจ, ืœืงืกื™ืงื•ืŸ ืื•ืคืง ืœืกืคืจื•ืช ื™ืœื“ื™ื, ื•ื™ืงื™ืคื“ื™ื”, ื”ืžื›ื•ืŸ ืœืชืจื’ื•ื ืกืคืจื•ืช ืขื‘ืจื™ืช, YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe]


ืกืคืจื™ื•:

  • ืฉื™ืจื™ื (ื•ื•ืืจืฉื : ื™ื‘ื ื”, ืชืจืกืดื”)
  • ื’ืขื–ืืžืขืœื˜ืข ืฉืจื™ืคื˜ืขืŸ (ื•ื•ืืจืฉื : ื•ื•ืขืœื˜ึพื‘ื™ื‘ืœื™ืึธื˜ืขืง, ืชืจืกืดื˜)
  • ืกืคืจ ื”ื‘ื“ื™ื“ื•ืช : ืฉื™ืจื™ื (ื•ืจืฉื” : ืกืคืจื•ืช, ืชืจืดืข)
  • ืฉื•ืฉื ืช ื™ืขืงื‘ : ืงื•ืžื™ื“ื™ืื” ืื™ืŸ 5 ืืงื˜ื•ืก ืงื•ืžืคื•ืื™ืกื˜ื” ืคื•ืจ ื™ืขืงื‘ ืฉื˜ื™ื™ื ื‘ื™ืจื’ / ื˜ืจื™ื–ืœืื“ืื“ื” ื“ื™ืœ ืื™ื‘ืจื™ืื• ืคื•ืจ ื™ืขืงื‘ ื‘ืจื•ืš (ืงื•ื ืกื˜ืื ื˜ื™ื ื•ืคืœื” : ื“ืคื•ืก ืœืณ ื‘ืื‘ื•ืง, ืชืจืคืดื)
  • ืื™ืŸ ื ืคืืจื•ื•ืึธืจืคืŸ ื•ื•ื™ื ืงืœ (ื‘ืขืจืœื™ืŸ : ื›ืœืœึพืคืืจืœืื’, ืชืจืคืดื’ 1922)
  • ื‘ืืฉื˜ืื ืขืก (ื‘ืขืจืœื™ืŸ : ื›ืœืœึพืคืืจืœืื’, ืชืจืคืดื’ 1922)
  • ืฉื™ืจื™ื (ืœื™ืคืกื™ื” : ืืดื™ ืฉื˜ื™ื‘ืœ, ืชืจืคืดื’)
  • ืกืคื•ืจื™ื : ื‘ืฉื ื™ ืกืคืจื™ื (ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ืึพื‘ืจืœื™ืŸ : ืžื•ืจื™ื” ื•ื“ื‘ื™ืจ, ืชืจืคืดื’ 1923)
  • ืจืฉื™ืžื•ืช (ืชืœึพืื‘ื™ื‘ : ื“ื‘ื™ืจ, ืชืจืคืดื— 1928)
  • ื“ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ื•ื—ื–ื™ื•ื ื•ืช (ืชืœึพืื‘ื™ื‘ : ืืดื™ ืฉื˜ื™ื‘ืœ, ืชืจืฆืดื“) <ืจืฉื™ืžื•ืช>
  • ื›ืชื‘ื™ ื™ืขืงื‘ ืฉื˜ื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื’ (ืชืœึพืื‘ื™ื‘ : ื”ื•ืฆืืช ื•ืขื“ ื”ื™ื•ื‘ืœ, ืชืจืฆืดื–) 3 ื›ืจืณ. <ื”ืชื•ื›ืŸ: ื›ืจืš ื. ืฉื™ืจื™ื โ€“ ื›ืจืš ื‘. ืกืคื•ืจื™ื โ€“ ื›ืจืš ื’. ืจืฉื™ืžื•ืช>
  • ืฉื™ืจื™ื ืื—ืจื•ื ื™ื (ืชืœึพืื‘ื™ื‘ : ื”ื•ืฆืืช ื”ื—ื‘ืจื” ืœืžืคืขืœื™ ืกืคืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ืื’ื•ื“ืช ื”ืกื•ืคืจื™ื ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ื, ืชืฉืดื—) <ืขื ื”ืงื“ืžื” ืžืืช ืืฉืจ ื‘ืจืฉ>
  • ืจืฉื™ืžื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช (ืชืœึพืื‘ื™ื‘ : ืื’ื•ื“ืช ื”ืกื•ืคืจื™ื ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืœื™ื“ ื“ื‘ื™ืจ, ืชืฉื™ืดื‘ 1951)
  • ื›ืœ ื›ืชื‘ื™ ื™ืขืงื‘ ืฉื˜ื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื’ (ืชืœึพืื‘ื™ื‘ : ื“ื‘ื™ืจ, ืชืฉื™ืดื–)
  • ืžื‘ื—ืจ ืœื™ืจื™ืงื” ื•ืจืฉื™ืžื•ืช (ืชืœึพืื‘ื™ื‘ : ื“ื‘ื™ืจ, ืชืฉื›ืดื’) <ื›ื•ืœืœ ื”ืงื“ืžื” ืžืืช ื ืชืŸ ื–ืš>
  • ื™ืœืงื•ื˜ ืกื™ืคื•ืจื™ื (ืชืœึพืื‘ื™ื‘ : ื™ื—ื“ื™ื• ื•ืื’ื•ื“ืช ื”ืกื•ืคืจื™ื ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ื ื‘ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ืชืฉื›ืดื•) <ืœื™ืงื˜ ื•ื”ื•ืกื™ืฃ ืžื‘ื•ื ื•ื”ืกื‘ืจื™ื ื’ืจืฉื•ืŸ ืฉืงื“>
  • ืฉื™ืจื™ื, ืกื™ืคื•ืจื™ื ื•ืžื—ื–ื•ืช ืืฉืจ ืœื ื ื›ืœืœื• ื‘ื›ืœ ื›ืชื‘ื™ื• (ืชืœึพืื‘ื™ื‘ : ืื’ื•ื“ืช ื”ืกื•ืคืจื™ื ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ื ื‘ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื•ื”ื•ืฆืืช ื“ื‘ื™ืจ, ืชืฉืœืดื•) <ื›ื™ื ืก ื•ื”ืงื“ื™ื ืžื‘ื•ื ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื›ื”ืŸ>
  • ื“ื™ื•ืงื ืื•ืช ื•ืขืจื›ื™ื : ืžืกื•ืช ืืฉืจ ืœื ื ื›ืœืœื• ื‘ื›ืœ ื›ืชื‘ื™ื•  (ืชืœึพืื‘ื™ื‘ : ืื’ื•ื“ืช ื”ืกื•ืคืจื™ื ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ื ื‘ื™ืฉืจืืœ ; ื“ื‘ื™ืจ, ืชืฉืœืดื˜ 1979) <ื›ื™ื ืก ื•ื”ืงื“ื™ื ืžื‘ื•ื ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื›ื”ืŸ>
  • ื’ืขื–ืืžืขืœื˜ืข ื“ืขืจืฆื™ื™ืœื•ื ื’ืขืŸ   (ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื : ื”ื•ืฆืืช ืกืคืจื™ื ืขืดืฉ ื™ืดืœ ืžืื’ื ืก, ื”ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ื” ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ืช, ืชืฉืžืดื– 1986) <ื›ื™ื ืก ื•ื”ื•ืกื™ืฃ ืžื‘ื•ื ืื”ืจืŸ ืงื•ืžื>
  • ื”ืฆืขื™ืฃ ื”ืื“ื•ื   (ืชืœึพืื‘ื™ื‘ : ื’ื•ื•ื ื™ื, ืชืฉื ืดื— 1997) <ื‘ื—ืจ ืืช ื”ืกื™ืคื•ืจื™ื ื•ื”ืงื“ื™ื ืžื‘ื•ื โ€“ ืจืŸ ื™ื’ื™ืœ>
  • ื”ืขื™ื•ื•ืจืช : ื‘ืช ื”ืจื‘ ; ื‘ืช ื™ืฉืจืืœ ; ื‘ื™ืŸ ืœื‘ื ื™ ื”ื›ืกืฃ (ืชืœึพืื‘ื™ื‘ : ื‘ื‘ืœ, ืชืฉืกืดื 2001)

ืชืจื’ื•ื:

  • ื”ืื’ื ื”ืฉืงื˜ / ืžืืช ืง. ืื•ืœื“ (ืชืœึพืื‘ื™ื‘ : ืืžื ื•ืช, ืชืจืฆืดื)

ืขืœ ื”ืžื—ื‘ืจ ื•ื™ืฆื™ืจืชื•:

ืกืคืจื™ื:
  • ืืœื‘ื’, ืจื•ื—ืžื”.  ืดื”ืžืฆื‘ ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ืด ื‘ืกื™ืคื•ืจื™ ื™ืขืงื‘ ืฉื˜ื™ื ื‘ืจื’ : ื“ืจื›ื™ ืขื™ืฆื•ื‘ื• ืชืคื™ืกืชื• ื•ืžืงื•ืžื• ืฉืœ ืžืฆื‘ ื™ืกื•ื“ื™ ื‘ืกื™ืคื•ืจื™ื• (ืจืžืชึพื’ืŸ, ืชืฉืดืŸ) <ืขื‘ื•ื“ืช ื’ืžืจ (ืž.ื.)โ€“ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ืช ื‘ืจึพืื™ืœืŸ, ืชืฉืดืŸ>
  • ืืœื—ื ืŸ, ืืœืขื–ืจ.   ื”ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ื”ื ื•ืคืœ ืืœ ื”ืชื”ื•ื : ื‘ื™ืŸ ืขื‘ืจื™ืช ืœื™ื™ื“ื™ืฉ ื‘ืฉื™ืจืชื• ืฉืœ ื™ืขืงื‘ ืฉื˜ื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื’ (ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื : ืžื•ืกื“ ื‘ื™ืืœื™ืง, ืชืฉืคืดื” 2025)
  • ื›ื”ืŸ, ืื”ื•ื‘ื”.  ื”ืฉืคืขื•ืชื™ื• ืฉืœ ืื ื˜ื•ืŸ ืค. ืฆืณื›ื•ื‘ ืขืœ ื“ืจื›ื™ ื”ืกื™ืคืจ ื‘ืกื™ืคื•ืจื™ ื™ืขืงื‘ ืฉื˜ื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื’ : ืขื™ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื•ื•ื” (ืจืžืชึพื’ืŸ, ืชืฉืดืข 2010) <ื“ื™ืกืจื˜ืฆื™ื”โ€“ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ืช ื‘ืจึพืื™ืœืŸ, ืชืฉืดืข 2010>
  • ื›ื”ืŸ, ื™ืฉืจืืœ.  ื™ืขืงื‘ ืฉื˜ื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื’ : ื”ืื™ืฉ ื•ื™ืฆื™ืจืชื• (ืชืœึพืื‘ื™ื‘ : ื“ื‘ื™ืจ, ืชืฉืœืดื‘ 1972)
  • ืœื•ื–, ืฆื‘ื™.  ืฉื™ืจืช ื™ืขืงื‘ ืฉื˜ื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื’ : ืžื•ื ื•ื’ืจืคื™ื” (ืชืœึพืื‘ื™ื‘ : ื”ืงื™ื‘ื•ืฅ ื”ืžืื•ื—ื“, 2000) <ืขืจื›ื” ื•ื”ื‘ื™ืื” ืœื“ืคื•ืก โ€“ ืœืื” ืฉื ื™ืจ>
  • ืœื•ืจื™ื, ืฉืœื•ื.  ื”ืคื•ืืžื” ืดืจื•ืกืœืื ื“ืด ืฉืœ ื™ืขืงื‘ ืฉื˜ื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื’ ื•ื–ื™ืงื•ืชื™ื” ืœืฉื™ืจืชื• ื‘ืขื‘ืจื™ืช  (ืชืœึพืื‘ื™ื‘, ืชืฉืœืดื 1971) <ืขื‘ื•ื“ืช ื’ืžืจ ืœืชื•ืืจ ืดืžื•ืกืžืšืด. ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ืช ืชืœึพืื‘ื™ื‘, ืชืฉืœืดื>
  • ืžื•ืจืก, ืกืžื“ืจ.  ื”ื’ื•ืฃ ื”ื ืฉื™ ื›ืกื—ื•ืจื” : ืงืจื™ืื” ื‘ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ืกื™ืคื•ืจื™ื ืžืืช ื™ืขืงื‘ ืฉื˜ื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื’ (ืชืœึพืื‘ื™ื‘, 2010) <ืขื‘ื•ื“ืช ื’ืžืจ ืœืชื•ืืจ ืดืžื•ืกืžืšืด. ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ืช ืชืœึพืื‘ื™ื‘, 2010>
  • ืกื™ื•ืŸ, ืฆืคื•ืจื”.  ืฉื™ืจืช ื™ืขืงื‘ ืฉื˜ื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื’  (ืจืžืชึพื’ืŸ, ืชืฉื ืดื 1991) <ื“ื™ืกืจื˜ืฆื™ื” โ€“ ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ืช ื‘ืจึพืื™ืœืŸ, ืชืฉื ืดื 1991>
  • ืงื•ืžื, ืื”ืจืŸ.  ื“ืจื›ื™ ื”ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ืฉืœ ื™ืขืงื‘ ืฉื˜ื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื’ (ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, ืชืฉืœืดื• 1976) <ื“ื™ืกืจื˜ืฆื™ื”โ€“ื”ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ื” ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ืช ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, ืชืฉืœืดื• 1976>
  • ืฉื”ึพืœื‘ืŸ, ื™ื•ืกืฃ.  ื™ืขืงื‘ ืฉื˜ื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื’ : ื”ืขืจื•ืช ื•ื”ื ื—ื™ื•ืช ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ื•ืœืงืจื™ืื” (ืชืœึพืื‘ื™ื‘ : ืื•ืจึพืขื, ืชืฉืžืดื‘ 1981)
ืžืืžืจื™ื: ืขืœ ืดืฉื™ืจื™ืืด (ืชืจืกืดื”) ืขืœ ืดืฉื™ืจื™ืืด (ืชืจืคืดื’) ืขืœ ืดืกืคื•ืจื™ืืด (ืชืจืคืดื’)
ืขืœ ืดืจืฉื™ืžื•ืชืด (ืชืจืคืดื—)
ืขืœ ืดื“ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ื•ื—ื–ื™ื•ื ื•ืชืด
ืขืœ ืดืกืคื•ืจื™ืืด, ื›ืจืš ื‘ืณ ืžืชื•ืš ืดื›ืชื‘ื™ ื™ืขืงื‘ ืฉื˜ื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื’ืด (ืชืจืฆืดื–)
ืขืœ ืดืฉื™ืจื™ื ืื—ืจื•ื ื™ืืด
  • ื‘ืจืฉ, ืืฉืจ. [ืขื ืฉื™ืจื™ ื™ืขืงื‘ ืฉื˜ื™ื ื‘ืจื’ ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื™ื]. ื‘ืชื•ืš:  ืฉื™ืจื™ื ืื—ืจื•ื ื™ื / ื™ืขืงื‘ ืฉื˜ื™ื ื‘ืจื’ (ืชืœึพืื‘ื™ื‘ : ื”ื•ืฆืืช ื”ื—ื‘ืจื” ืœืžืคืขืœื™ ืกืคืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ืื’ื•ื“ืช ื”ืกื•ืคืจื™ื ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ื, ืชืฉืดื—), ืขืžืณ 5โ€“6 <ื—ื–ืจ ื•ื ื“ืคืก ื‘ืชื•ืš ื›ืชื‘ื™ ืืฉืจ ื‘ืจืฉ, ื›ืจืš ืฉืœื™ืฉื™ (ืชืœึพืื‘ื™ื‘ : ื”ื•ืฆืืช ืžืกื“ื”, ืชืฉื™ืดื–), ืขืžืณ 41.>
ืขืœ ืดื”ืขื™ื•ื•ืจืช, ื‘ืช ื”ืจื‘, ื‘ืช ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ื‘ื™ืŸ ืœื‘ื ื™ ื”ื›ืกืฃืด
  • ืžื™ื˜ืจื ื™, ื ื™ืจื™ืช.  ืดื—ืชื™ื›ืช ื‘ืฉืจ ื•ืขื™ื ื™ื™ืืด : ืขืœ ื”ื™ืกื•ื“ ื”ื“ื™ืืœืงื˜ื™ ื‘ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ืณื‘ืช ื™ืฉืจืืœืณ ืฉืœ ื™ืขืงื‘ ืฉื˜ื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื’.  ืขืœื™ ืฉื™ื—, ื—ื•ื‘ืณ 41 (ื—ื•ืจืฃ ืชืฉื ืดื˜ 1998), ืขืžืณ 21โ€“35.
  • ืžืœืฆืจ, ื™ื•ืจื. ืงืœืืกื™ืงื” ื ื’ื™ืฉื” ื‘ืขื‘ืจื™ืช ื—ื™ื”. ืžืขืจื™ื‘, ืžื•ืกืฃ ืฉื‘ืช โ€“ ืกืคืจื•ืช ื•ืกืคืจื™ื, ื™ืณ ื‘ืื“ืจ ืชืฉืกืดื‘, 22 ื‘ืคื‘ืจื•ืืจ 2002, ืขืžืณ 26.
  • ืฉืื•ืœ, ืจื‘ืงื”.  ืงืกื ืœืœื ื ืžืขืŸ.  ืžืงื•ืจ ืจืืฉื•ืŸ, ืฉื‘ืช, ื—ืณ ื‘ื˜ื‘ืช ืชืฉืกืดื–, 29 ื‘ื“ืฆืžื‘ืจ 2006, ืขืžืณ 18โ€“19 <ืขืœ ื“ืžื•ืช ืื—ืช ื‘ืกื™ืคื•ืจื™ ืฉื˜ื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื’ ื•ืขืœ ืชื”ืœื™ืš ืžืชืžืฉืš ืฉืœ ื”ื‘ื ืช ืกื™ืคื•ืจ โ€“ ืขืœ ื”ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ืดื‘ืช ื™ืฉืจืืœืด>
ืงื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื:

OpenLibrary โ€“ OL169922A Wikidata โ€“ Q6119315 NLI โ€“ 987007268583005171 LC โ€“ n85296371 VIAF โ€“ 121623141
ืขื•ื“ื›ืŸ ืœืื—ืจื•ื ื”: 3 ื‘ืืคืจื™ืœ 2026

ืœืจืืฉ ื”ื“ืฃ

 

 

ืกืคืจื™ ื”ืžื—ื‘ืจ

 

ืขืœ ื™ืฆื™ืจืชื•

 

ืงื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื

 

 

ืœืจืืฉ ื”ื“ืฃ