Geikielite
A valid IMA mineral species - grandfathered
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About Geikielite
Sir Archibald Geikie, Director General, British Geological Survey.
Formula:
MgTiO3
Colour:
Black, red, brownish black
Lustre:
Sub-Metallic
Hardness:
5 - 6
Specific Gravity:
3.79 - 4.2
Crystal System:
Trigonal
Member of:
Name:
For Sir Archibald Geikie (Edinburgh 28 December 1835 – Haslemere, Surrey 10 November 1924), Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of Edinburgh, Scotland, and Director-General of the Geological Survey of Great Britain and Ireland.
Ilmenite Group. Geikielite-Ilmenite Series. The magnesium analogue of Ilmenite, Pyrophanite, and Ecandrewsite. The titanium analogue of Akimotoite.
May be confused with Hematite.
May be confused with Hematite.
Unique Identifiers
Mindat ID:
1670
Long-form identifier:
mindat:1:1:1670:0
IMA Classification of Geikielite
Approved, 'Grandfathered' (first described prior to 1959)
IMA Formula:
MgTi4+O3
First published:
1892
Classification of Geikielite
4.CB.05
4 : OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites, iodates)
C : Metal: Oxygen = 2: 3,3: 5, and similar
B : With medium-sized cations
4 : OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites, iodates)
C : Metal: Oxygen = 2: 3,3: 5, and similar
B : With medium-sized cations
4.3.5.2
4 : SIMPLE OXIDES
3 : A2X3
4 : SIMPLE OXIDES
3 : A2X3
7.9.5
7 : Oxides and Hydroxides
9 : Oxides of Ti
7 : Oxides and Hydroxides
9 : Oxides of Ti
Mineral Symbols
As of 2021 there are now IMA–CNMNC approved mineral symbols (abbreviations) for each mineral species, useful for tables and diagrams.
Please only use the official IMA–CNMNC symbol. Older variants are listed for historical use only.
Please only use the official IMA–CNMNC symbol. Older variants are listed for historical use only.
| Symbol | Source | Reference for Standard |
|---|---|---|
| Gk | IMA–CNMNC | Warr, L.N. (2021). IMA–CNMNC approved mineral symbols. Mineralogical Magazine, 85(3), 291-320. doi:10.1180/mgm.2021.43 |
| Gk | Whitney & Evans (2010) | Whitney, D.L. and Evans, B.W. (2010) Abbreviations for names of rock-forming minerals. American Mineralogist, 95, 185–187 doi:10.2138/am.2010.3371 |
| Gkl | The Canadian Mineralogist (2019) | The Canadian Mineralogist (2019) The Canadian Mineralogist list of symbols for rock- and ore-forming minerals (December 30, 2019). download |
Physical Properties of Geikielite
Sub-Metallic
Transparency:
Translucent, Opaque
Colour:
Black, red, brownish black
Streak:
Purple brown
Hardness:
5 - 6 on Mohs scale
Cleavage:
Distinct/Good
On {1011}
On {1011}
Fracture:
Conchoidal, Sub-Conchoidal
Density:
3.79 - 4.2 g/cm3 (Measured) 3.895 g/cm3 (Calculated)
Optical Data of Geikielite
Type:
Uniaxial (-)
RI values:
nω = 2.31 - 2.35 nε = 1.95 - 1.98
Max. Birefringence:
δ = 0.360 - 0.370
Based on recorded range of RI values above.
Based on recorded range of RI values above.
Interference Colours:
The colours simulate birefringence patterns seen in thin section under crossed polars. They do not take into account mineral colouration or opacity.
Michel-Levy Bar The default colours simulate the birefringence range for a 30 µm thin-section thickness. Adjust the slider to simulate a different thickness.
Grain Simulation You can rotate the grain simulation to show how this range might look as you rotated a sample under crossed polars. Each grain retains its interference colour (retardation) while its brightness falls to black at extinction and reaches a maximum between extinction positions.
The colours simulate birefringence patterns seen in thin section under crossed polars. They do not take into account mineral colouration or opacity.
Michel-Levy Bar The default colours simulate the birefringence range for a 30 µm thin-section thickness. Adjust the slider to simulate a different thickness.
Grain Simulation You can rotate the grain simulation to show how this range might look as you rotated a sample under crossed polars. Each grain retains its interference colour (retardation) while its brightness falls to black at extinction and reaches a maximum between extinction positions.
Surface Relief:
Very High (positive)
Relative to Canada balsam mounting medium (n ≈ 1.537).
Relative to Canada balsam mounting medium (n ≈ 1.537).
This shows the grain boundary and Becke line effect under plane-polarised
light, based on the contrast between this mineral's average refractive
index and the mounting medium. It does not take into account mineral
colouration.
In focus
Interference Figure:
This shows the idealized uniaxial interference figure - the conoscopic
(convergent-light, Bertrand-lens-in) view, for a grain cut with the optic axis
centred and vertical. The coloured rings are isochromatics, computed with the
same physics as the Michel-Lévy bar above; the dark cross is the isogyre.
For a genuinely uniaxial mineral viewed this way, that cross stays perfectly stationary if you rotate the stage - unlike a biaxial mineral, where it splits apart on rotation. That invariance is itself the standard diagnostic test for telling uniaxial and biaxial minerals apart at the microscope.
For a genuinely uniaxial mineral viewed this way, that cross stays perfectly stationary if you rotate the stage - unlike a biaxial mineral, where it splits apart on rotation. That invariance is itself the standard diagnostic test for telling uniaxial and biaxial minerals apart at the microscope.
Anisotropism:
Strong
Colour in reflected light:
Gray
Internal Reflections:
Red
Pleochroism:
Weak
Comments:
O = Pinkish red
E = Brownish to purplish red
E = Brownish to purplish red
Chemistry of Geikielite
Mindat Formula:
MgTiO3
Element Weights:
Elements listed:
Common Impurities:
Fe,Cr,Mn,Ca
Crystallography of Geikielite
Crystal System:
Trigonal
Class (H-M):
3 - Pyramidal
Space Group:
R3
Cell Parameters:
a = 5.05478(26) Å, c = 13.8992(7) Å
Ratio:
a:c = 1 : 2.75
Unit Cell V:
307.56 ų (Calculated from Unit Cell)
Z:
6
Morphology:
Tabular to prismatic crystals.
Crystal Structure
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Data courtesy of the American Mineralogist Crystal Structure Database. Click on an AMCSD ID to view structure
| ID | Species | Reference | Link | Year | Locality | Pressure (GPa) | Temp (K) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0006108 | Geikielite | Liferovich R P, Mitchell R H (2006) The pyrophanite-geikielite solid-solution series: crystal structures of the Mn1-xMgxTiO3 series (0 < x < 0.7) The Canadian Mineralogist 44 1099-1107 |  | 2006 | synthetic | 0 | 293 |
| 0006107 | Geikielite | Liferovich R P, Mitchell R H (2006) The pyrophanite-geikielite solid-solution series: crystal structures of the Mn1-xMgxTiO3 series (0 < x < 0.7) The Canadian Mineralogist 44 1099-1107 | | 2006 | synthetic | 0 | 293 |
| 0009834 | Geikielite | Wechsler B A, Von Dreele R B (1989) Structure refinements of Mg2TiO4, MgTiO3 and MgTi2O5 by time-of-flight neutron powder diffraction Acta Crystallographica B45 542-549 |  | 1989 | synthetic | 0 | 293 |
| 0008981 | Geikielite | Liferovich R P, Mitchell R H (2005) Rhombohedral ilmenite group nickel titanates with Zn, Mg, and Mn: synthesis and crystal structures Physics and Chemistry of Minerals 32 442-449 | 2005 | 0 | 293 | ||
| 0008980 | Geikielite | Liferovich R P, Mitchell R H (2005) Rhombohedral ilmenite group nickel titanates with Zn, Mg, and Mn: synthesis and crystal structures Physics and Chemistry of Minerals 32 442-449 | 2005 | 0 | 293 |
CIF Raw Data - click here to close
X-Ray Powder Diffraction
Powder Diffraction Data:
| d-spacing | Intensity |
|---|---|
| 2.722 Å | (100) |
| 2.218 Å | (70) |
| 2.527 Å | (55) |
| 1.708 Å | (55) |
| 3.703 Å | (45) |
| 1.852 Å | (40) |
| 1.4592 Å | (40) |
Comments:
Synthetic. Data from Swanson et al. (1955).
Geological Environment
Paragenetic Mode(s):
| Paragenetic Mode | Earliest Age (Ga) |
|---|---|
| Stage 2: Planetesimal differentiation and alteration | 4.566-4.550 |
| 5 : Primary asteroid phases | 4.566–4.560 |
| Stage 3a: Earth’s earliest Hadean crust | >4.50 |
| 7 : Ultramafic igneous rocks | |
| Stage 3b: Earth’s earliest hydrosphere | >4.45 |
| 13 : Hadean serpentinization | |
| Near-surface Processes | |
| 26 : Hadean detrital minerals | |
| High-? alteration and/or metamorphism | |
| 31 : Thermally altered carbonate, phosphate, and iron formations | |
| Stage 4b: Highly evolved igneous rocks | >3.0 |
| 36 : Carbonatites, kimberlites, and related igneous rocks | |
| Stage 10a: Neoproterozoic oxygenation/terrestrial biosphere | <0.6 |
| 50 : Coal and/or oil shale minerals | <0.36 |
| Stage 10b: Anthropogenic minerals | <10 Ka |
| 54 : Coal and other mine fire minerals (see also #51 and #56) |
Geological Setting:
Contact metamorphism of impure magnesian limestones.
Type Occurrence of Geikielite
General Appearance of Type Material:
Pebbles.
Place of Conservation of Type Material:
Natural History Museum, London, England, 69078-69079.
Geological Setting of Type Material:
Gem gravels.
Associated Minerals at Type Locality:
Synonyms of Geikielite
Other Language Names for Geikielite
Relationship of Geikielite to other Species
Member of:
Other Members of Ilmenite Group:
| Akimotoite | MgSiO3 | Trig. 3 : R3 |
| Ecandrewsite | ZnTiO3 | Trig. 3 : R3 |
| Hemleyite | Fe2+SiO3 | Trig. 3 : R3 |
| Ilmenite | Fe2+TiO3 | Trig. 3 : R3 |
| Pyrophanite | Mn2+TiO3 | Trig. 3 : R3 |
| 'Unnamed (Fe-Cr Oxide)' | FeCrO3 | Trig. 3 : R3 |
Forms a series with:
Common Associates
Associations Based on Photo Data:
| 15 photos of Geikielite associated with Spinel | MgAl2O4 |
| 13 photos of Geikielite associated with Lizardite | Mg3(Si2O5)(OH)4 |
| 10 photos of Geikielite associated with Calcite | CaCO3 |
| 4 photos of Geikielite associated with 'Apatite' | Ca5(PO4)3A |
| 4 photos of Geikielite associated with Pseudosinhalite | Mg2Al3(BO3)2(OH)O3 |
| 3 photos of Geikielite associated with 'Titanclinohumite' | (Mg,Ti)9(SiO4)4(OH,O,F)2 |
| 2 photos of Geikielite associated with Serpentine Subgroup | D3[Si2O5](OH)4 |
| 2 photos of Geikielite associated with Hydroxylclinohumite | Mg9(SiO4)4(OH)2 |
| 2 photos of Geikielite associated with Magnesio-hastingsite | NaCa2(Mg4Fe3+)(Si6Al2)O22(OH)2 |
| 2 photos of Geikielite associated with Hematite | Fe2O3 |
Related Minerals - Strunz-mindat Grouping
| 4.CB. | Magnesiohögbomite-6N12S | Mg5Al11TiO23(OH) |
| 4.CB. | Kidodite | BaMg2Fe16O27 |
| 4.CB. | Ferrohögbomite-2N2S | [(Fe2+,Mg,Zn,Al)3(Al,Ti,Fe3+)8O15(OH)]2 |
| 4.CB. | Zhenruite | (MoO3)2 · H2O |
| 4.CB. | Fuyuanite | Mg7Nb6O18(OH)8 |
| 4.CB. | Virgilluethite | MoO3 · H2O |
| 4.CB. | Pengite | (Pb8Sb3+3)Σ11Sb5+9O35 |
| 4.CB.05 | Brizziite | NaSb5+O3 |
| 4.CB.05 | Tistarite | Ti3+2O3 |
| 4.CB.05 | Hematite | Fe2O3 |
| 4.CB.05 | Ecandrewsite | ZnTiO3 |
| 4.CB.05 | Melanostibite | Mn2+2Fe3+Sb5+O6 |
| 4.CB.05 | 'UM1998-11-O-AuHSb' | Au+2Sb3+O2(OH) |
| 4.CB.05 | Karelianite | V3+2O3 |
| 4.CB.05 | Corundum | Al2O3 |
| 4.CB.05 | Eskolaite | Cr2O3 |
| 4.CB.05 | Akimotoite | MgSiO3 |
| 4.CB.05 | 'Unnamed (Fe-Cr Oxide)' | FeCrO3 |
| 4.CB.05 | 'Auroantimonate' | AuSbO3 |
| 4.CB.05 | Hemleyite | Fe2+SiO3 |
| 4.CB.05 | Ilmenite | Fe2+TiO3 |
| 4.CB.05 | Pyrophanite | Mn2+TiO3 |
| 4.CB.10 | Bixbyite-(Fe) | (Fe,Mn)2O3 |
| 4.CB.10 | Bixbyite-(Mn) | Mn3+2O3 |
| 4.CB.10 | Avicennite | Tl3+2O3 |
| 4.CB.15 | Armalcolite | MgTi4+2O5 |
| 4.CB.15 | Ferropseudobrookite | Fe2+Ti4+2O5 |
| 4.CB.15 | Griffinite | Al2Ti4+O5 |
| 4.CB.15 | Pseudobrookite Group | |
| 4.CB.15 | Sassite | Ti3+2Ti4+O5 |
| 4.CB.15 | Pseudobrookite | Fe3+2Ti4+O5 |
| 4.CB.20 | Zincovelesite-6N6S | Zn3(Fe3+,Mn3+,Al,Ti)8O15(OH) |
| 4.CB.20 | Magnesiohögbomite-2N4S | (Mg8.43Fe2+1.57)Σ=10Al22Ti4+2O46(OH)2 |
| 4.CB.20 | Magnesiobeltrandoite-2N3S | (Mg6Al2)(Al18Fe3+2)O38(OH)2 |
| 4.CB.20 | Zincohögbomite-2N6S | [(Zn,Mg)7(Al,Fe3+,Ti)16O31(OH)]2 |
| 4.CB.20 | Magnesiohögbomite-6N6S | [(Mg,Fe2+)3(Al,Ti,Fe3+)8O15(OH)]6 |
| 4.CB.20 | Magnesiohögbomite-2N3S | [(Mg,Fe2+,Zn)4(Al,Ti,Fe3+)10O19(OH)]2 |
| 4.CB.20 | Magnesiohögbomite-2N2S | [(Mg,Fe2+)3[Al7(Ti,Fe3+)]O15(OH)]2 |
| 4.CB.20 | 'Ferrohögbomite-6N12S' | [(Fe2+,Mg,Zn)5(Al,Ti,Fe3+)12O23(OH)]6 |
| 4.CB.20 | Zincohögbomite-2N2S | [(Zn,Al,Fe2+)3(Al,Fe3+,Ti)8O15(OH)]2 |
| 4.CB.25 | Kleberite | FeTi6O11(OH)5 |
| 4.CB.25 | Pseudorutile | Fe3+2Ti4+3O9 |
| 4.CB.30 | Oxyvanite | V3+2V4+O5 |
| 4.CB.30 | Berdesinskiite | V3+2TiO5 |
| 4.CB.30 | Kaitianite | Ti3+2Ti4+O5 |
| 4.CB.35 | Machiite | Al2Ti3O9 |
| 4.CB.35 | Vestaite | (Ti4+Fe2+)Ti4+3O9 |
| 4.CB.35 | Olkhonskite | (Cr,V)2Ti3O9 |
| 4.CB.35 | Schreyerite | V3+2Ti4+3O9 |
| 4.CB.40 | Zincorinmanite-(Zn) | Zn2Sb2(Fe3+4Zn2)O14(OH)2 |
| 4.CB.40 | Majindeite | Mg2Mo3O8 |
| 4.CB.40 | Almagreraite | CuZnMn4+3O8 |
| 4.CB.40 | Kamiokite | Fe2Mo3O8 |
| 4.CB.40 | Nolanite | V3+8Fe3+2O14(OH)2 |
| 4.CB.40 | Iseite | Mn2Mo3O8 |
| 4.CB.40 | Rinmanite | Zn2Sb2Mg2Fe4O14(OH)2 |
| 4.CB.45 | Stibioclaudetite | AsSbO3 |
| 4.CB.45 | Claudetite | As2O3 |
| 4.CB.50 | Senarmontite | Sb2O3 |
| 4.CB.50 | Arsenolite | As2O3 |
| 4.CB.55 | Valentinite | Sb2O3 |
| 4.CB.60 | Bismite | Bi2O3 |
| 4.CB.65 | Sphaerobismoite | Bi2O3 |
| 4.CB.70 | Sillénite | Bi12SiO20 |
| 4.CB.75 | Kyzylkumite | V3+Ti2O5(OH) |
| 4.CB.80 | 'Tietaiyangite' | Fe3+4Fe2+TiO9 |
| 4.CB.85 | Liuite | FeTiO3 |
| 4.CB.90 | Luogufengite | Fe2O3 |
| 4.CB.95 | Wangdaodeite | FeTiO3 |
Other Information
Thermal Behaviour:
Infusible.
Notes:
When in a fine powder, slowly decomposed by hot strong HCl. Also decomposed by hydrofluoric acid even in the cold in the course of a few hours if finely powdered.
Health Risks:
No information on health risks for this material has been entered into the database. You should always treat mineral specimens with care.
Internet Links for Geikielite
mindat.org URL:
https://www.mindat.org/min-1670.html
Please feel free to link to this page.
Please feel free to link to this page.
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External Links:
Mineral Dealers:
References for Geikielite
Reference List:
Dick, A. (1893) On Geikielite, a New Mineral from Ceylon. Mineralogical Magazine and Journal of the Mineralogical Society, 10 (46) 145-147 doi:10.1180/minmag.1893.010.46.07
Gieré, Reto (1987) Titanian clinohumite and geikielite in marbles from the Bergell contact aureole. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, 96 (4). 496-502 doi:10.1007/bf01166694
Wechsler, B. A., Von Dreele, R. B. (1989) Structure refinements of Mg2TiO4, MgTiO3 and MgTi2O5 by time-of-flight neutron powder diffraction. Acta Crystallographica Section B Structural Science, 45 (6). 542-549 doi:10.1107/s010876818900786x
Robie, Richard A., Haselton, H.T., Hemingway, Bruce S. (1989) Heat capacities and entropies at 298.15 K of MgTiO3 (geikielite), ZnO (zincite), and ZnCO3 (smithsonite) The Journal of Chemical Thermodynamics, 21 (7) 743-749 doi:10.1016/0021-9614(89)90058-x
Linton, Jennifer A.; Fei, Yingwei; Navrotsky, Alexandra (1999) The MgTiO3-FeTiO3 join at high pressure and temperature. American Mineralogist, 84 (10). p.1595-1603. doi:10.2138/am-1999-1013
Reusser, Eric, Gieré, Reto, Lumpkin, Gregory R. (2001) Geikielite exsolution in spinel. American Mineralogist, 86 (11) 1435-1446 doi:10.2138/am-2001-11-1212
Liferovich, Ruslan P., Mitchell, Roger H. (2005) Rhombohedral ilmenite group nickel titanates with Zn, Mg, and Mn: synthesis and crystal structures. Physics and Chemistry of Minerals, 32 (5) 442-449 doi:10.1007/s00269-005-0020-7
Liferovich, R. P., Mitchell, R. H. (2006) The pyrophanite–geikielite solid-solution series: crystal structures of the Mn1-xMgxTiO3 series (0 < x < 0.7) The Canadian Mineralogist, 44 (5) 1099-1107 doi:10.2113/gscanmin.44.5.1099
Okada, T., Narita, T., Nagai, T., Yamanaka, T. (2008) Comparative Raman spectroscopic study on ilmenite-type MgSiO3 (akimotoite), MgGeO3, and MgTiO3 (geikielite) at high temperatures and high pressures. American Mineralogist, 93 (1) 39-47 doi:10.2138/am.2008.2490
Localities for Geikielite
Showing 96 localities.
symbol to view information about a locality.
The Locality List
- This locality has map coordinates listed.
- This locality has estimated coordinates.
ⓘ - Click for references and further information on this occurrence.
? - Indicates mineral may be doubtful at this locality.
- Good crystals or important locality for species.
- World class for species or very significant.
(TL) - Type Locality for a valid mineral species.
(FRL) - First Recorded Locality for everything else (eg varieties).
All localities listed without proper references should be considered as questionable.
Afghanistan | |
| Collett et al. (2015) |
Antarctica | |
| Grew et al. (1991) |
| Rosenshein et al. (2006) |
Australia | |
| Bottrill & Taheri |
Austria | |
| Kolitsch (2022) |
| Kolitsch (2018) |
| Tropper (2001, 2007) +1 other reference |
| Gasteiger et al. (2013) |
Brazil | |
| Oliveira et al. (2020) |
| Menezes et al. (1984) | |
Canada | |
| Peatfield (n.d.) |
| Richard Gunter Collection. |
| Analysis by Tony Steede at the ROM |
| Sabina (1987) |
| Sabina (1987) +1 other reference |
China | |
| Lin et al. (1996) |
| Wei et al. (2020) |
| Qi Lu et al. (2007) |
| Liu |
| Yan Liu et al. (1997) | |
Czech Republic | |
| Houzar et al. (2008) |
| Houzar S.: Spinel z Číhalína a Nové ... |
| Novák |
Finland | |
| rruff.geo.arizona.edu (n.d.) |
| O´Brien |
France | |
| Dubru. M (1986) |
Greenland | |
| Windley et al. (1989) |
India | |
| Melluso et al. (2010) |
| Burtseva et al. (2013) |
Italy | |
| Gentile P. (1986) |
| Pascal et al. (2008) +1 other reference | |
| Gentile et al. (1986) |
| Caponera et al. (2007) |
| Cerea et al. (2019) |
| - (n.d.) +1 other reference |
| - (n.d.) | |
| - (n.d.) |
| The Canadian Mineralogist |
| Gerdes et al. (1999) |
| Ferry J.M. et al. (2002) |
| Gieré et al. (1992) |
Japan | |
| Nedachi et al (1984) |
| Watanabe et al (1963) +1 other reference |
Mauritania | |
| - (2010) |
Mozambique | |
| Slobodník +6 other references |
Myanmar | |
| Franz Neuhold & Gerald Giester (SXRD- and EDS-analysis) +1 other reference |
North Korea | |
| Imai et al. (2000) |
| Resource Geology | |
Norway | |
| Robinson et al. (2014) |
| Smith et al. (1986) |
Pakistan | |
| rruff.geo.arizona.edu (n.d.) | |
| Gordon Cressey (1986) | |
Paraguay | |
| Presser et al. (2014) |
Russia | |
| |
| Cesnokov et al. (1998) |
| Alekseev et al. (2007) |
| Vladykin et al. (2008) +1 other reference |
| Lennikov et al. (2004) |
| |
| Ivanyuk et al. (2017) |
| Krasnova (2001) | |
| Mikhailova et al. (2015) +2 other references | |
| Doroshkevich et al. (2022) |
| Rezvukhin +3 other references |
| Kasatkin et al. (2021) |
| Sklyarov +5 other references | |
Slovakia | |
| Koděra et al. (1986) |
South Africa | |
| Cairncross et al. (1995) |
| Lee +1 other reference |
| LM et al. (2009) | |
| rruff.geo.arizona.edu (n.d.) |
Spain | |
| Romero Silva (2003) +1 other reference |
| Colección Juan A.M. Barnestein |
| Romero Silva (2003) +1 other reference | |
| Calvo Rebollar (2009) |
| Weibel (1954) |
Sri Lanka | |
| Nature (1892) +1 other reference |
| Nature (1892) +1 other reference | |
| Nature (1892) | |
Sweden | |
| Denisová (2013) |
| Gatedal (n.d.) |
UK | |
| Ferry (1996) |
USA | |
| Anthony et al. (1995) |
| Wise (1959) +2 other references |
| Jenni (1957) +2 other references |
| Murdoch (1948) +5 other references |
| Cook (1974) |
| Heinrich et al. (2004) |
| Heinrich et al. (2004) | |
| Heinrich et al. (2004) | |
| Li +3 other references |
| Smith +1 other reference |
| Glenn Rheim |
Zimbabwe | |
| rruff.geo.arizona.edu (n.d.) |
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