Dioptase
A valid IMA mineral species - grandfathered
This page kindly sponsored by Mariusz Oleszczuk
About Dioptase
Formula:
CuSiO3 · H2O
Colour:
Emerald Green, blue-green
Lustre:
Sub-Adamantine, Vitreous, Sub-Vitreous
Hardness:
5
Specific Gravity:
3.28 - 3.35
Crystal System:
Trigonal
Name:
Named in 1797 by Hauy from the Greek for "through" and "to see" in allusion to the visibility of internal cleavage planes.
Bright emerald-green modified rhombohedral usually elongated crystals.
Visit gemdat.org for gemological information about Dioptase.
Visit gemdat.org for gemological information about Dioptase.Unique Identifiers
Mindat ID:
1295
Long-form identifier:
mindat:1:1:1295:5
IMA Classification of Dioptase
Approved, 'Grandfathered' (first described prior to 1959)
IMA Formula:
Cu2+SiO3·H2O
Classification of Dioptase
9.CJ.30
9 : SILICATES (Germanates)
C : Cyclosilicates
J : [Si6O18]12- 6-membered single rings (sechser-Einfachringe), without insular complex anions
9 : SILICATES (Germanates)
C : Cyclosilicates
J : [Si6O18]12- 6-membered single rings (sechser-Einfachringe), without insular complex anions
Dana 7th ed.:
61.1.3.1
61.1.3.1
61 : CYCLOSILICATES Six-Membered Rings
1 : Six-Membered Rings with [Si6O18] rings; possible (OH) and Al substitution
61 : CYCLOSILICATES Six-Membered Rings
1 : Six-Membered Rings with [Si6O18] rings; possible (OH) and Al substitution
14.2.1
14 : Silicates not Containing Aluminum
2 : Silicates of Cu
14 : Silicates not Containing Aluminum
2 : Silicates of Cu
Mineral Symbols
As of 2021 there are now IMA–CNMNC approved mineral symbols (abbreviations) for each mineral species, useful for tables and diagrams.
Please only use the official IMA–CNMNC symbol. Older variants are listed for historical use only.
Please only use the official IMA–CNMNC symbol. Older variants are listed for historical use only.
| Symbol | Source | Reference for Standard |
|---|---|---|
| Dpt | IMA–CNMNC | Warr, L.N. (2021). IMA–CNMNC approved mineral symbols. Mineralogical Magazine, 85(3), 291-320. doi:10.1180/mgm.2021.43 |
| Dpt | Whitney & Evans (2010) | Whitney, D.L. and Evans, B.W. (2010) Abbreviations for names of rock-forming minerals. American Mineralogist, 95, 185–187 doi:10.2138/am.2010.3371 |
Pronunciation of Dioptase
Pronunciation:
| Play | Recorded by | Country |
|---|---|---|
| Jolyon Ralph | United Kingdom | |
| Debbie Woolf | United Kingdom |
Physical Properties of Dioptase
Sub-Adamantine, Vitreous, Sub-Vitreous
Transparency:
Transparent, Translucent
Colour:
Emerald Green, blue-green
Streak:
Green
Hardness:
5 on Mohs scale
Hardness Data:
Measured
Tenacity:
Brittle
Cleavage:
Perfect
Perfect on {1011}
Perfect on {1011}
Fracture:
Irregular/Uneven, Conchoidal
Density:
3.28 - 3.35 g/cm3 (Measured) 3.296 g/cm3 (Calculated)
Optical Data of Dioptase
Type:
Uniaxial (+)
RI values:
nω = 1.652 - 1.658 nε = 1.704 - 1.71
Max. Birefringence:
δ = 0.052
Based on recorded range of RI values above.
Based on recorded range of RI values above.
Interference Colours:
The colours simulate birefringence patterns seen in thin section under crossed polars. They do not take into account mineral colouration or opacity.
Michel-Levy Bar The default colours simulate the birefringence range for a 30 µm thin-section thickness. Adjust the slider to simulate a different thickness.
Grain Simulation You can rotate the grain simulation to show how this range might look as you rotated a sample under crossed polars. Each grain retains its interference colour (retardation) while its brightness falls to black at extinction and reaches a maximum between extinction positions.
The colours simulate birefringence patterns seen in thin section under crossed polars. They do not take into account mineral colouration or opacity.
Michel-Levy Bar The default colours simulate the birefringence range for a 30 µm thin-section thickness. Adjust the slider to simulate a different thickness.
Grain Simulation You can rotate the grain simulation to show how this range might look as you rotated a sample under crossed polars. Each grain retains its interference colour (retardation) while its brightness falls to black at extinction and reaches a maximum between extinction positions.
Surface Relief:
Very High (positive)
Relative to Canada balsam mounting medium (n ≈ 1.537).
Relative to Canada balsam mounting medium (n ≈ 1.537).
This shows the grain boundary and Becke line effect under plane-polarised
light, based on the contrast between this mineral's average refractive
index and the mounting medium. It does not take into account mineral
colouration.
In focus
Interference Figure:
This shows the idealized uniaxial interference figure - the conoscopic
(convergent-light, Bertrand-lens-in) view, for a grain cut with the optic axis
centred and vertical. The coloured rings are isochromatics, computed with the
same physics as the Michel-Lévy bar above; the dark cross is the isogyre.
For a genuinely uniaxial mineral viewed this way, that cross stays perfectly stationary if you rotate the stage - unlike a biaxial mineral, where it splits apart on rotation. That invariance is itself the standard diagnostic test for telling uniaxial and biaxial minerals apart at the microscope.
For a genuinely uniaxial mineral viewed this way, that cross stays perfectly stationary if you rotate the stage - unlike a biaxial mineral, where it splits apart on rotation. That invariance is itself the standard diagnostic test for telling uniaxial and biaxial minerals apart at the microscope.
Pleochroism:
Weak
Comments:
absorption reported as O>E;
however, absorption observed as O = very pale powder blue, E = pale cyan; E>O
however, absorption observed as O = very pale powder blue, E = pale cyan; E>O
Chemistry of Dioptase
Mindat Formula:
CuSiO3 · H2O
Element Weights:
Elements listed:
Crystallography of Dioptase
Crystal System:
Trigonal
Class (H-M):
3 - Rhombohedral
Space Group:
R3
Cell Parameters:
a = 14.566 Å, c = 7.778 Å
Ratio:
a:c = 1 : 0.534
Unit Cell V:
1,429.15 ų (Calculated from Unit Cell)
Z:
18
Morphology:
Long to short prismatic [0001], dominant forms {1120}, and {0221}, {1341}.
Twinning:
On {1011}, uncommon.
Crystallographic forms of Dioptase
Crystal Atlas:
Image Loading
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Dioptase no.1 - {110} - Goldschmidt (1913-1926)
Dioptase no.17 - {110} - Goldschmidt (1913-1926)
3d models and HTML5 code kindly provided by
www.smorf.nl.
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Crystal Structure
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Data courtesy of the American Mineralogist Crystal Structure Database. Click on an AMCSD ID to view structure
| ID | Species | Reference | Link | Year | Locality | Pressure (GPa) | Temp (K) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0008642 | Dioptase | Belokoneva E L, Gubina Y K, Forsyth J B, Brown P J (2002) The charge-density distribution, its multipole refinement and the antiferromagnetic structure of dioptase, Cu6[Si6O18].6H2O Physics and Chemistry of Minerals 29 430-438 | 2002 | 0 | 293 | ||
| 0000587 | Dioptase | Ribbe P H, Gibbs G V, Hamil M (1977) A refinement of the structure of dioptase, Cu6[Si6O18]*6H2O American Mineralogist 62 807-811 |  | 1977 | 0 | 293 |
CIF Raw Data - click here to close
X-Ray Powder Diffraction
Loading XRD data...
Data courtesy of RRUFF project at University of Arizona, used with permission.
Powder Diffraction Data:
| d-spacing | Intensity |
|---|---|
| 7.29 Å | (50) |
| 6.63 Å | (4) |
| 4.90 Å | (25) |
| 4.21 Å | (5) |
| 4.07 Å | (30) |
| 3.716 Å | (7) |
| 3.644 Å | (9) |
| 3.309 Å | (9) |
| 3.190 Å | (15) |
| 3.015 Å | (5) |
| 2.922 Å | (6) |
| 2.754 Å | (9) |
| 2.714 Å | (20) |
| 2.600 Å | (100) |
| 2.443 Å | (60) |
| 2.400 Å | (15) |
| 2.323 Å | (1) |
| 2.280 Å | (10) |
| 2.207 Å | (9) |
| 2.176 Å | (3) |
| 2.117 Å | (20) |
| 2.033 Å | (7) |
| 2.021 Å | (6) |
| 2.004 Å | (1) |
| 1.9576 Å | (4) |
| 1.8877 Å | (5) |
| 1.8684 Å | (2) |
| 1.8583 Å | (1) |
| 1.8310 Å | (1) |
| 1.8218 Å | (2) |
| 1.8009 Å | (1) |
| 1.7728 Å | (3) |
| 1.7566 Å | (10) |
| 1.7242 Å | (20) |
| 1.7078 Å | (9) |
| 1.6999 Å | (20) |
| 1.6718 Å | (1) |
| 1.6353 Å | (7) |
| 1.6143 Å | (3) |
| 1.5951 Å | (5) |
| 1.5903 Å | (4) |
| 1.5452 Å | (1) |
| 1.5071 Å | (15) |
| 1.4905 Å | (6) |
| 1.4790 Å | (1) |
| 1.4754 Å | (1) |
| 1.4621 Å | (1) |
| 1.4569 Å | (2) |
| 1.4510 Å | (4) |
| 1.4333 Å | (1) |
Comments:
ICDD 33-487.
Geological Environment
Paragenetic Mode(s):
| Paragenetic Mode | Earliest Age (Ga) |
|---|---|
| Stage 7: Great Oxidation Event | <2.4 |
| 47a : [Near-surface hydration of prior minerals] |
Geological Setting:
In the oxidized zone of some copper deposits.
Type Occurrence of Dioptase
Place of Conservation of Type Material:
No defined type material.
Geological Setting of Type Material:
A secondary mineral in the oxidized zones of copper deposits.
Synonyms of Dioptase
Other Language Names for Dioptase
Common Associates
Associations Based on Photo Data:
| 1,628 photos of Dioptase associated with Calcite | CaCO3 |
| 418 photos of Dioptase associated with Quartz | SiO2 |
| 316 photos of Dioptase associated with Plancheite | Cu8(Si8O22)(OH)4 · H2O |
| 312 photos of Dioptase associated with Malachite | Cu2(CO3)(OH)2 |
| 296 photos of Dioptase associated with Wulfenite | Pb(MoO4) |
| 265 photos of Dioptase associated with Duftite | PbCu(AsO4)(OH) |
| 259 photos of Dioptase associated with Chrysocolla | Cu2-xAlx(H2-xSi2O5)(OH)4 · nH2O, x < 1 |
| 209 photos of Dioptase associated with Shattuckite | Cu5(Si2O6)2(OH)2 |
| 178 photos of Dioptase associated with Cerussite | PbCO3 |
| 95 photos of Dioptase associated with Dolomite | CaMg(CO3)2 |
Related Minerals - Strunz-mindat Grouping
| 9.CJ. | Zolotarevite | Na5Zr[Si6O15(OH)3] · 3H2O |
| 9.CJ. | 'Avdeevite' | NaAl4(Be5Li)(Si6O18)2(H2O)1-2 |
| 9.CJ. | 'Beryllocordierite-Na' | NaMg4(Al5Be)(AlSi5O18)2 · 2H2O |
| 9.CJ. | Sachanbińskiite | NaMn4(Al5Be)(AlSi5O18)2 · 2H2O |
| 9.CJ. | Nakkaalaaqite | K2[Na3Ca]LiCa2Ti2Be4Si12O38 |
| 9.CJ.05 | Johnkoivulaite-(Cs) | Cs[Be2B]Mg2Si6O18 |
| 9.CJ.05 | Beryl | Be3Al2(Si6O18) |
| 9.CJ.05 | Bazzite | Be3Sc2(Si6O18) |
| 9.CJ.05 | Ferroindialite | (Fe2+,Mg)2Al4Si5O18 |
| 9.CJ.05 va | 'Vorobyevite' | Be3Al2(Si6O18) |
| 9.CJ.05 | Stoppaniite | Be3Fe3+2(Si6O18) · H2O |
| 9.CJ.05 | Indialite | Mg2Al3(AlSi5O18) |
| 9.CJ.10 | Sekaninaite | Fe2+2Al4Si5O18 |
| 9.CJ.10 | Cordierite | Mg2Al4Si5O18 |
| 9.CJ.15a | Zirsinalite | Na6(Ca,Mn2+,Fe2+)Zr(Si6O18) |
| 9.CJ.15a | Kapustinite | Na6ZrSi6O16(OH)2 |
| 9.CJ.15a | Townendite | Na8ZrSi6O18 |
| 9.CJ.15a | Combeite | Na4.5Ca3.5Si6O17.5(OH)0.5 |
| 9.CJ.15a | Kazakovite | Na6Mn2+Ti(Si6O18) |
| 9.CJ.15a | Tisinalite | Na3H3(Mn,Ca,Fe)TiSi6(O,OH)18 · 2H2O |
| 9.CJ.15a | Lovozerite | Na2Ca(Zr,Ti)(Si6O12)[(OH)4O2] · H2O |
| 9.CJ.15a | Litvinskite | Na2(◻,Na,Mn)ZrSi6O12(OH,O)6 |
| 9.CJ.15c | Koashvite | Na6(Ca,Mn)(Ti,Fe)Si6O18 · H2O |
| 9.CJ.15b | Imandrite | Na12Ca3Fe3+2(Si6O18)2 |
| 9.CJ.25 | Baratovite | KCa7(Ti,Zr)2Li3Si12O36F2 |
| 9.CJ.25 | Aleksandrovite | KCa7Sn2Li3Si12O36F2 |
| 9.CJ.25 | Katayamalite | KLi3Ca7Ti2(SiO3)12(OH)2 |
| 9.CJ.35 | Kostylevite | K2Zr(Si3O9) · H2O |
| 9.CJ.40 | Petarasite | Na5Zr2(Si6O18)(Cl,OH) · 2H2O |
| 9.CJ.45 | Gerenite-(Y) | (Ca,Na)2(Y,REE)3Si6O18 · 2H2O |
| 9.CJ.50 | Odintsovite | K2Na4Ca3Ti2Be4Si12O38 |
| 9.CJ.55 | Mathewrogersite | Pb7FeAl3GeSi12O36(OH,H2O)6 |
| 9.CJ.60 | Pezzottaite-(Cs) | Cs(Be2Li)Al2(Si6O18) |
Fluorescence of Dioptase
Nonfluorescent in UV.
Other Information
Electrical:
Pyroelectric
Health Risks:
No information on health risks for this material has been entered into the database. You should always treat mineral specimens with care.
Internet Links for Dioptase
mindat.org URL:
https://www.mindat.org/min-1295.html
Please feel free to link to this page.
Please feel free to link to this page.
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Mineral Dealers:
References for Dioptase
Reference List:
Haüy, René Just (1796) Extrait du Traité Élémentaire de Minéralogie que le C.en Haüy s'occupe de rédiger. Journal des mines, 5 (28). 249-334 pp.274-275
Miller, W. H. (1842) XLVII. On the optical constants of tourmaline, dioptase and anatase. The London, Edinburgh, And Dublin Philosophical Magazine And Journal Of Science, S. 3 Vol. 21 (138) London. 277-278 doi:10.1080/14786444208621546
Websky, M. (1846) Beitrag zur Charakteristik des Dioptas. Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 145. 543-548 doi:10.1002/andp.18461451209
Jannettaz, Édouard (1890) Note sur une dioptase du Congo français. Bulletin de Minéralogie, 13 (4) 159 doi:10.3406/bulmi.1890.2166
Heide, Hans Gunther (1954) Die Struktur des Dioptas, Cu6(Si6O18)·6 H2O. Die Naturwissenschaften, 41 (17). 402-403 doi:10.1007/bf00629583
Heide, H. G., Boll-Dornberger, K., Thilo, E., Thilo, E. M. (1955) Die Struktur des Dioptas, Cu6(Si6O18)6H2O. Acta Crystallographica, 8 (7) 425-430 doi:10.1107/s0365110x55001345
Adams, David M.; Gardner, Ian R. (1974) Single-crystal vibrational spectra of beryl and dioptase. Journal of the Chemical Society, Dalton Transactions 14, 1502-1505 doi:10.1039/dt9740001502
Ribbe, Paul H., Gibbs, G. V., Hamil, Martha M. (1977) A refinement of the structure of dioptase, Cu6[Si6O18]·6H2O. American Mineralogist, 62 (7-8) 807-811
Breuer, K.-H.; Eysel, W. (1988) Structural and chemical varieties of dioptase, Cu6[Si6O18] · 6 H2O. I. Thermal properties. Zeitschrift für Kristallographie, 184 (1-2). 1-12 doi:10.1524/zkri.1988.184.1-2.1
Breuer, K.-H.; Eysel, W.; Müller, R. (1989) Structural and chemical varieties of dioptase, Cu6[Si6O18] · 6H2O. Zeitschrift für Kristallographie, 187 (1-2). 15-23 doi:10.1524/zkri.1989.187.1-2.15
Kiseleva, Irina A., Ogorodova, Lyubov P., Melchakova, Lyubov V., Bisengalieva, Mira R. (1993) Thermodynamic properties of copper silicate: dioptase: Cu6Si6O18·6H2O. The Journal of Chemical Thermodynamics, 25 (5) 621-630 doi:10.1006/jcht.1993.1057
McKeown, David A., Kim, Charles C., Bell, Michael I. (1995) Vibrational analysis of dioptase Cu6Si6O18.6(H2O) and its puckered six-membered ring. Physics and Chemistry of Minerals, 22 (3) doi:10.1007/bf00202293
Goryainov, S. V. (1996) Dehydration-induced changes in the vibrational states of dioptase Cu6Si6O18·6H2O. Journal of Structural Chemistry, 37 (1). 58-64 doi:10.1007/bf02578571
Brandt, H.-J.; Otto, H. H. (1997) Synthesis and crystal structure of Cu6[Ge6O18] · 6H2O, a dioptase-type cyclo-germanate. Zeitschrift für Kristallographie, 212 (1). 34 doi:10.1524/zkri.1997.212.1.34
Selvin, P.Christopher, Watanabe, S., Ayala-Arenas, J.S. (2001) Thermoluminescence and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) studies of mineral chrysocolla (dioptase). Radiation Physics and Chemistry, 61. 531-533 doi:10.1016/s0969-806x(01)00323-1
Cook, Robert B. (2002) Connoisseur's Choice: Dioptase, Tsumeb, Namibia. Rocks & Minerals, 77 (3) 176-180 doi:10.1080/00357529.2002.9926680
Gros, C, Lemmens, P, Choi, K.-Y, Güntherodt, G, Baenitz, M, Otto, H. H (2002) Quantum phase transition in the dioptase magnetic lattice. Europhysics Letters (EPL), 60. 276-280 doi:10.1209/epl/i2002-00347-0
Belokoneva, E. L.; Gubina, Yu. K.; Forsyth, J. B.; Brown, P. J. (2002) The charge-density distribution, its multipole refinement and the antiferromagnetic structure of dioptase, Cu6[Si6O18]·6H2O. Physics and Chemistry of Minerals, 29 (6). 430-438 doi:10.1007/s00269-002-0246-6
Ohta, H; Fujisawa, M; Souda, N; Okubo, S; Ohmichi, E; Sakurai, T; Kikuchi, H; Ono, T; Tanaka, H; Matsubayashi, K; et al. (2009) Magnetic susceptibility measurement under high pressure and magnetization measurement of S = 1/2 dioptase lattice antiferromagnet. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 150 (4). 042151 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/150/4/042151
Janson, O., Tsirlin, A. A., Schmitt, M., Rosner, H. (2010) Large quantum fluctuations in the strongly coupled spin-12chains of green dioptaseCu6Si6O18⋅6H2O. Physical Review B, 82 (1) doi:10.1103/physrevb.82.014424
Frost, Ray L., Xi, Yunfei (2013) Thermogravimetric analysis of the copper silicate mineral dioptase Cu6[Si6O18]·6H2O. Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, 112 (2) 615-619 doi:10.1007/s10973-012-2599-5
Podlesnyak, A.; Prokhnenko, O.; Nikitin, S. E.; Kolesnikov, A. I.; Matsuda, M.; Dissanayake, S. E.; Prisk, T. R.; Nojiri, H.; Díaz-Ortega, I. F.; Kidder, M. K.; et al. (2019) Magnetic ground state and magnetic excitations in black dioptase Cu 6 Si 6 O 18
Localities for Dioptase
Showing 214 localities.
symbol to view information about a locality.
The Locality List
- This locality has map coordinates listed.
- This locality has estimated coordinates.
ⓘ - Click for references and further information on this occurrence.
? - Indicates mineral may be doubtful at this locality.
- Good crystals or important locality for species.
- World class for species or very significant.
(TL) - Type Locality for a valid mineral species.
(FRL) - First Recorded Locality for everything else (eg varieties).
All localities listed without proper references should be considered as questionable.
Angola | |
| Gysin (1957) +1 other reference |
Argentina | |
| Colombo et al. (2011) |
Australia | |
| Haupt (2012) |
| Munro-Smith (2006) |
Canada | |
| Horváth et al. (2013) |
Chile | |
| Braithwaite et al. (2004) |
| Maurizio Dini collection +1 other reference |
| Zambra et al. (2007) |
| sample analysed by Tony Kampf |
| |
| Uwe Kolitsch collection (SXRD-analysed) |
| - (n.d.) +1 other reference | |
| Mr. Terry Szenics. Joan Rosell specimen ... | |
| maurizio dini collection - analysed ... |
| collected and analysed by french ... |
| samples analysed by Gerhard Moehn. | |
| Sample from the collection of Copiapó ... | |
| hède frédéric |
| - (n.d.) +1 other reference |
| Gerhard Möhn collection |
| Mr. Terry Szenics +1 other reference |
| "Informe preliminar sobre las minas del ... +3 other references |
| Sullivan (1979) | |
| Personally collected by Günter Frenz |
China | |
| Li et al. (2015) |
| Jiyuan Zhou et al. (1999) |
Czech Republic | |
| |
| Petr Pauliš (2000) |
| Sejkora et al. (2007) |
DR Congo | |
| |
| Jordi Fabre specimen | |
| Gauthier et al. (1989) |
| Deliens (1996) | |
| Kampunzu et al. (2009) |
| Wilson (2018) |
| No reference available to date |
| Deliens (1989) +1 other reference | |
| Lhoest et al. (1991) |
France | |
| Caubel (1997) |
Germany | |
| Belendorff (2007) |
| Jahn (1999) +1 other reference |
| Wittern (2001) |
Iran | |
| Bariand et al. (1963) |
| Henley (1970) |
Israel | |
| Shlomovitch et al. (1996) |
| Bartura (1974) | |
Italy | |
| Giuseppe Pipino - L'antica miniera di ... +1 other reference |
| Gruppo Mineralogico Lombardo (10) |
| Stara P. (1996) |
| //doi.org/10.57635/MICRO.2025.23.17 |
| Fernando Caboni et al. (2024) | |
| Fernando Caboni et al. (2024) | |
| L. Dell'Anna (1967) |
Japan | |
| Watanabe et al. (2003) |
Kazakhstan (TL) | |
| Cooper (1992) +1 other reference |
Kazakhstan/Russia | |
| Mason (1976) | |
Mexico | |
| Singer et al. (2008) |
| Panczner (1987) |
| Panczner (1987) |
| Lavinsky (n.d.) |
| Panczner (1987) |
| Megaw (2023) |
| Panczner (1987) |
| Fabre (n.d.) +1 other reference |
Morocco | |
| Tom Praskier has been to the locality and confirmed dioptase with (unknown) |
| Georges FAVREAU collection | |
| |
Namibia | |
| Brandstetter (2012) |
| Niedermayr et al. (2008) +1 other reference | |
| von Bezing et al. (2016) | |
| Schnaitmann et al. (2010) | |
| Jakob (1987) +2 other references | |
| Schnaitmann et al. (2010) | |
| Schnaitmann et al. (2010) | |
| Niedermayr et al. (2010) | |
| von Bezing (2007) | |
| von Bezing (2007) | |
| Brandstätter +3 other references | |
| ... +1 other reference |
| [MinRec 19:117 +1 other reference |
| Personally collected by Don Windeler in ... | |
| Henglein (1921) |
| Bezing et al. (2007) | |
| Cairncross (1997) +1 other reference | |
| Cairncross (1997) +1 other reference | |
| Dunn (1991) |
| Markham (1959) | |
| Jean-Pierre specimens photo ID 1182191 ... |
New Zealand | |
| Railton et al. (1990) |
| Railton et al. (1990) |
| Railton et al. (1990) |
| Fraser (1910) |
| Railton et al. (1990) | |
Peru | |
| - (specimens on sale in Lima, May 2004) |
| Guido del Castillo (2004) +1 other reference |
| |
Portugal | |
| Oliveira et al. (2025) |
| Oliveira et al. (2025) |
Republic of the Congo | |
| Demetrius Pohl |
| Demetrius Pohl |
| www.mindat.org (n.d.) | |
| Redpath Museum collection +1 other reference | |
| Demetrius Pohl +2 other references |
| Spirifer Minerals specimens |
| Lavinsky (n.d.) | |
| Demetrius Pohl |
| Demetrius Pohl | |
| Demetrius Pohl | |
| Demetrius Pohl | |
| Demetrius Pohl +1 other reference | |
| www.spiriferminerals.com (2020) +1 other reference | |
| Dan Weinrich specimen |
| King et al. (1993) | |
| Demetrius Pohl |
Romania | |
| |
South Africa | |
| Cairncross et al. (2008) |
| Cairncross et al. (1995) |
| Cairncross et al. (1995) |
| Meyer et al. (1986) | |
UK | |
| Hartley (1984) +1 other reference |
USA | |
| Mason (1976) | |
| Graeme (1993) |
| Graeme (1981) | |
| Luetcke (n.d.) |
| Robert Jenkins Raman Spectroscopy |
| Eastlick +1 other reference |
| Chester S. Lemanski +1 other reference | |
| Keith (1972) |
| Anthony et al. (1995) |
| Lausen (1925) +2 other references |
| Lausen (1925) +2 other references |
| MRDS database Dep. ID #10095423 |
| Hills (1882) +6 other references |
| Dana |
| MRDS database Dep. ID #10048279 | |
| Merritt Stephen Enders (2000) |
| MRDS database Dep. ID #10048276 | |
| MRDS database Dep. ID #10048293 |
| Anthony et al. (1995) |
| Galbraith (1959) +1 other reference |
| Anthony et al. (1995) | |
| Hunt (1983) |
| Hunt (1983) |
| Anthony et al. (1995) | |
| Anthony et al. (1995) |
| Anthony et al. (1995) | |
| |
| MRDS file #10037093. |
| Thomas (1949) +1 other reference |
| Thomas (1949) +3 other references | |
| Anthony et al. (1995) |
| Luetcke (n.d.) |
| Anthony et al. (1995) |
| King (n.d.) |
| Galbraith et al. (1940) +5 other references |
| Palache et al. (1951) | |
| Jones et al. (1983) | |
| Anthony et al. (1995) | |
| Smith (1887b) +2 other references |
| Jones et al. (1983) |
| Anthony et al. (1995) |
| Wilson et al. (1950) +6 other references |
| Short et al. (1943) +2 other references | |
| Rocks & Min.: 60 (1) +3 other references |
| Anthony et al. (1995) | |
| Galbraith (1959) +1 other reference |
| Andrew Haighton Collection |
| Adams (2003) |
| Ransome (1940) +1 other reference |
| Wise (1993) |
| Murdoch (1966) |
| Personally collected by Bruce Kelley |
| EDS analyzed by Bob Housley. | |
| Murdoch (1966) | |
| Crowley (1977) +5 other references |
| Thorne (n.d.) | |
| Dan Evanich field collected. | |
| Collected by and in the collection of ... | |
| Collected by and in the collection of ... | |
| Daniel J. Evanich field collected ... | |
| https://www.mindat.org/XHX-HEJ |
| Morris (1983) |
| Castor et al. (2004) |
| Castor et al. (2004) | |
| Castor et al. (2004) |
| USGS PP 162] +1 other reference | |
| USGS PP 162] +1 other reference | |
| USGS PP 162] +1 other reference | |
| Castor et al. (2004) | |
| Castor et al. (2004) | |
| Kenneth Coleman |
| K. Starnes |
| Castor et al. (2004) |
| Cummings |
| Dr. Eugene Sensel |
| Northrop et al. (1996) |
| Walstrom 2006 New Mexico Mineral ... |
| Walstrom 2006 New Mexico Mineral ... |
| Northrop et al. (1996) |
| Rocks & Minerals 81:229-234 |
| Dmitry Stepanenko collection |
Zambia | |
| Mike Sweeney collection |
Zimbabwe | |
| Cairncross (2004) |
| Cairncross (2004) |
| Cairncross (2004) | |
| Cairncross (2004) +1 other reference |
| Cairncross (2004) |
| Cairncross (2004) | |
| Cairncross (2004) | |
| Cairncross (2004) |
| Cairncross (2004) |
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Altyn-Tyube dioptase deposit, Altyn-Tyube area, Bukhar-Zhyrau District, Karaganda Region, Kazakhstan