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Galileo Galilei

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Galileo Galilei
Rayuwa
Cikakken sunaGalileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de' Galilei
HaihuwaPisa (en) Fassara, 15 ga Faburairu, 1564
ƙasaDuchy of Florence (en) Fassara
Grand Duchy of Tuscany (en) Fassara
MazauniPisa (en) Fassara
Padua (mul) Fassara
Firenze (mul) Fassara
MutuwaArcetri (en) Fassara, 8 ga Janairu, 1642
MakwanciBasilica of Santa Croce (en) Fassara
Ƴan uwa
MahaifiVincenzo Galilei
MahaifiyaGiulia Ammannati
Abokiyar zamaNot married
Ma'aurataMaría Gamba (en) Fassara
Yara
AhaliMichelagnolo Galilei (en) Fassara
Karatu
MakarantaUniversità di Pisa (mul) Fassara
(1581 - 1585) : Ilimin magunguna, Lissafi
Thesis directorOstilio Ricci (en) Fassara
Dalibin daktanciGiuseppe Biancani (mul) Fassara
Benedetto Castelli (en) Fassara
Mario Guiducci (en) Fassara
Vincenzo Viviani (en) Fassara
HarsunaHarshen Latin
Italiyanci
Ɗalibai
Sana'a
Sana'aIlimin Taurari, mai falsafa, masanin lissafi, physicist (en) Fassara, inventor (en) Fassara, astrologer (en) Fassara, university teacher (en) Fassara, Masanin kimiyya, injiniya, mai falsafa da ɗan siyasa
Wurin aikiPisa (en) Fassara, Padua (mul) Fassara da Firenze (mul) Fassara
EmployersUniversità di Pisa (mul) Fassara  (1589 -
University of Padua (en) Fassara  (1592 -
Muhimman ayyukaGalilean transformation (en) Fassara
equations for a falling body (en) Fassara
Kyaututtuka
MambaAccademia della Crusca (en) Fassara
Accademia dei Lincei (mul) Fassara
Accademia delle Arti del Disegno (en) Fassara
Imani
AddiniLatin Church (en) Fassara

Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de 'Galilei (an haife a ranar 15 ga watan Fabrairu shekara ta alif 1564 zuwa ranar 8 ga watan Janairu shekara ta alif 1642), wanda aka fi sanin sa da Galileo Galilei[lower-alpha 1] ko kuma Galileo, masanin taurari ne na Italiya, masanin kimiyyar lissafi, injiniya da kuma polymath.[lower-alpha 2]  – An haife shi ne a Pisa, sannan wani ɓangare na Duchy na Florence . An kira Galileo uban ilimin taurari na lura, kimiyyar lissafi na gargajiya, Hanyar kimiyya, da Kimiyya ta zamani.

Ya yi nazarin saurin gudu da saurin gudu, nauyi da Faduwar kyauta, ka'idar daidaituwa, inertiya, motsi na projectile, kuma ya yi aiki a cikin kimiyya da fasaha, yana kwatanta kaddarorin pendulum da "ma'aunin hydrostatic". Ya kasance daya daga cikin masu haɓaka farko na thermoscope kuma mai kirkirar Compasses na soja daban-daban. Tare da ingantaccen na'urar daukar hoto da ya gina, ya lura da taurari na Milky Way, matakai na Venus, manyan tauraron dan adam guda huɗu na Jupiter, zoben Saturn, Craters na wata, da Sunspots. Ya kuma gina microscope na farko.

Gwagwarmayar Galileo game da Copernican heliocentrism ta sadu da adawa daga cikin Cocin Katolika da kuma wasu masu binciken taurari. Roman Inquisition ya binciki lamarin a cikin shekara ta 1615, wanda ya kammala cewa ra'ayoyinsa sun saba wa fassarar Littafi Mai-Tsarki da aka yarda da su.[6][7][8]

Galileo ya kare ra'ayinsa a cikin Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo (Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, 1632), wanda ya bayyana don jayayya da satiriza Paparoma Urban na takwas, don haka ya nisanta Paparoma da Jesuits, waɗanda dukansu sun goyi bayan Galileo har zuwa wannan batu.[6]Inquisition ta yi masa shari'a, ta sami "wanda ake zargi da ridda", kuma ta tilasta masa ya tuba. Ya shafe sauran rayuwarsa a karkashin tsare-tsare a gida.[9][10]A wannan lokacin, ya rubuta Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche, ya yi la'akari da wani nau'i na nuove scienze (Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences, 1638) da farko game da kinematics da ƙarfin kayan.

Rayuwa ta farko da iyali

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An haifi Galileo a Pisa (a lokacin wani ɓangare na Duchy na Florence) a ranar 15 ga watan Fabrairu 1564, [11] ta farko cikin 'ya'ya shida na Vincenzo Galilei, babban mawaki, kuma Masanin ilimin kiɗa, da Giulia Ammannati, 'yar wani fitaccen ɗan kasuwa, wanda ya yi aure shekaru biyu da suka gabata a 1562, lokacin da yake da shekaru 42 kuma tana da shekara 24. Vincenzo ya kasance wani ɓangare na Florentine Camerata, wanda ya kafa tushe ga sabon nau'in opera. Galileo ya zama ƙwararren ɗan lute da kansa.[12]

Uku daga cikin 'yan uwan Galileo guda biyar sun tsira daga jariri. Mafi ƙanƙanta, Michelangelo (ko Michelagnolo), ya kuma zama mawaƙi da mawaƙa wanda ya kara nauyin kuɗi na Galileo ga sauran rayuwarsa.[12]Michelangelo bai iya ba da gudummawar rabon da ya dace na sadakar da mahaifinsu ya yi wa surukansu alkawari ba, wanda daga baya ya yi ƙoƙari ya nemi magungunan shari'a don biyan kuɗi. Michelangelo kuma a wasu lokuta dole ne ya ranta kuɗi daga Galileo don tallafawa ƙoƙarinsa na kiɗa da tafiye-tafiye. Wadannan nauyin kudi na iya ba da gudummawa ga sha'awar farko ta Galileo don haɓaka abubuwan kirkirar da za su kawo masa ƙarin kuɗin shiga.[12]

Lokacin da Galileo Galilei ya kasance takwas, iyalinsa suka koma Florence, amma an bar shi a ƙarƙashin kulawar Muzio Tedaldi na tsawon shekaru biyu. Lokacin da Galileo yake da shekaru goma, ya bar Pisa ya haɗu da iyalinsa a Florence, inda ya zo ƙarƙashin kulawar Jacopo Borghini . [11] Ya yi karatu, musamman a cikin tunani, daga 1575 zuwa 1578 a cikin Vallombrosa Abbey, kimanin 30 kilometres (19 mi) (19 kudu maso gabashin Florence.[13][14]

Galileo ya saba kiran kansa da sunansa na farko. A lokacin, sunayen mahaifi sun kasance zaɓi a Italiya, kuma sunansa na farko yana da asali iri ɗaya da sunan danginsa na wani lokaci, Galilei . Dukansu sunansa da sunan iyali sun samo asali ne daga kakanninmu, Galileo Bonaiuti, wani muhimmin likita, farfesa, kuma ɗan siyasa a Florence a karni na 15.[15]Lokacin da ya kira kansa da sunaye fiye da ɗaya, wani lokacin ana kiransa Galileo Galilei Linceo, yana nufin kasancewa memba na Accademia dei Lincei, ƙungiyar kimiyya mai daraja da aka kafa a cikin Papal States. Ya zama ruwan dare ga iyalan Tuscan na tsakiyar karni na 16 su ba da sunan ɗan fari bayan sunan mahaifiyar iyaye.[15]Saboda haka, ba lallai ba ne a sanya sunan Galileo Galilei bayan kakansa Galileo Bonaiuti.

Maza na Italiyanci da aka ba da sunan "Galileo" (kuma daga nan ne sunan mahaifiyar "Galilei") ya samo asali ne daga Latin "Galilaeus", ma'ana "na Galili". [15]Wannan sunan na Littafi Mai-Tsarki ya zama batun (wanda ake zaton) pun.[lower-alpha 3] A cikin 1614, a lokacin Al'amarin Galileo, daya daga cikin abokan adawar Galileo, firist na Dominican Tommaso Caccini, ya gabatar da wa'azi mai rikitarwa da tasiri a kan Galileo wanda ya yi ƙaulin Littafin Ayyukan Manzanni: "Ku mazajen Galili, me ya sa ku tsaya ku kalli sama?".[16]

Yara

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  Ko da yake Katolika ne mai ibada, Galileo ya haifi 'ya'ya uku ba tare da aure ba tare da Marina Gamba: 'ya'yan mata Virginia (an haife su 1600) da Livia (1601), da ɗa Vincenzo (1606). [7]

Saboda haihuwarsu ba bisa ka'ida ba, Galileo ya yi la'akari da 'yan matan da ba za a iya yin aure ba, suna buƙatar tallafi mai tsada ko sadaki mai yawa, kamar matsalolin kudi na Galileo da suka gabata tare da' yan uwansa mata biyu.[12]Hanyar da za a iya girmamawa ita ce rayuwar addini: sun zama nuns na dindindin a gidan ibada na San Matteo a Arcetri.[15]

Virginia ta ɗauki sunan Maria Celeste lokacin da ta shiga gidan ibada. Ta mutu a ranar 2 ga Afrilu 1634, kuma an binne ta tare da Galileo a Basilica na Santa Croce, Florence . Livia ta ɗauki sunan Sister Arcangela kuma ba ta da lafiya mafi yawan rayuwarta. Daga baya aka ba da izini ga Vincenzo a matsayin magajin Galileo, kuma ya auri Sestilia Bocchineri . [17]

Ayyuka da gudummawar kimiyya ta farko

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Kodayake Galileo ya yi la'akari da firist a matsayin saurayi, a kan shawarar mahaifinsa ya shiga cikin 1580 a Jami'ar Pisa don digiri na likita.[18]Jawabin Girolamo Borro, Domingo de Soto da Francesco Buonamici na Florence sun rinjaye shi.[14] A shekara ta 1581, lokacin da yake karatun likitanci, ya lura da wani kyandir mai juyawa, wanda iska ke juyawa zuwa juyawa a cikin manyan da ƙananan arcs. A gare shi, ya zama kamar, idan aka kwatanta da bugun zuciyarsa, cewa kandal ɗin ya ɗauki lokaci iri ɗaya don juyawa baya da gaba, ba tare da la'akari da yadda yake juyawa ba. Lokacin da ya dawo gida, ya kafa pendulums guda biyu daidai kuma ya juya daya tare da babban sweep ɗayan kuma tare da karamin sweep kuma ya gano cewa sun riƙe lokaci tare. Ba har sai aikin Christiaan Huygens ba, kusan shekaru ɗari bayan haka, an yi amfani da yanayin tautochrone na pendulum mai juyawa don ƙirƙirar daidai lokaci. Har zuwa wannan lokacin, an hana Galileo da gangan daga lissafi, tunda likita ya sami kudin shiga mafi girma fiye da masanin lissafi. Koyaya, bayan ya halarci lacca ba zato ba tsammani game da lissafi, ya yi magana da mahaifinsa mai jinkiri don ya bar shi ya yi karatun lissafi da falsafar halitta maimakon magani.[19] Ya kirkiro thermoscope, wanda ya fara amfani da thermometer, kuma, a cikin 1586, ya buga wani karamin littafi game da ƙirar ma'aunin hydrostatic da ya kirkira (wanda ya fara kawo shi ga hankalin duniya mai ilimi). Galileo ya kuma yi nazarin disegno, kalmar da ta ƙunshi fasaha mai kyau, kuma, a cikin 1588, ya sami matsayin malami a cikin Accademia delle Arti del Disegno a Florence, koyar da hangen nesa da chiaroscuro. A cikin wannan shekarar, a kan gayyatar da Kwalejin Florentine ta yi, ya gabatar da laccoci biyu, On the Shape, Location, and Size of Dante's Inferno, a cikin ƙoƙari na ba da shawarar tsarin tsarin cosmological na Dante's Divine Comedy . [20] Da yake an yi wahayi zuwa gare shi ta hanyar al'adun fasaha na birnin da ayyukan Masu zane-zane na Renaissance, Galileo ya sami kyakkyawan tunani. Yayinda yake matashi malami a Accademia, ya fara abota da mai zane na Florentine Cigoli . [21][22]

A shekara ta 1589, an nada shi a matsayin shugaban lissafi a Pisa. A shekara ta 1591, mahaifinsa ya mutu, kuma an ba shi kula da ƙanensa Michelagnolo. A shekara ta 1592, ya koma Jami'ar Padua inda ya koyar da lissafi, injiniya, da ilimin taurari har zuwa shekara ta 1610.[7]A wannan lokacin, Galileo ya yi muhimman abubuwan da aka gano a cikin kimiyya mai tsabta da kuma kimiyya mai amfani. Abubuwan da yake sha'awa da yawa sun haɗa da nazarin astrology, wanda a lokacin horo ne da ke da alaƙa da nazarin lissafi, ilimin taurari da magani.[23][24] Bugu da ƙari, Galileo ya shiga aikin injiniya na ruwa, yana samun takardar shaidar daga Jamhuriyar Venetian don famfo na ruwa mai amfani da doki a cikin 1594.[25]

Ilimin taurari

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Supernova na Kepler

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Tycho Brahe da sauransu sun lura da supernova na shekara ta 1572. Wasikar Ottavio Brenzoni ta 15 ga Janairu 1605 zuwa Galileo ta kawo supernova ta 1572 da kuma mafi ƙarancin haske na 1601 ga sanarwa ta Galileo. Galileo ya lura kuma ya tattauna Kepler's Supernova a cikin 1604. Tun da yake waɗannan sabbin taurari ba su nuna wani parallax na yau da kullun ba, Galileo ya kammala cewa taurari ne masu nisa, sabili da haka, ya karyata imanin Aristotle game da rashin canji na sammai.[26]

Na'urar daukar hotuna mai banƙyama

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"Cannocchiali" telescopes a Museo Galileo, Florence, wanda ake zargi da zama telescopes na Galili (sama: 1610-1630; kasa: 1609-1640)

Wataƙila ya dogara ne kawai akan bayanin na'urar daukar hoto ta farko wanda Hans Lippershey ya yi ƙoƙari ya ba da izini a cikin Netherlands a cikin 1608, Galileo, a cikin shekara mai zuwa, ya yi na'urar kallon ido tare da kusan 3× girma.[27] Daga baya ya inganta fasalin tare da kusan girman 30x.[28]Tare da na'urar daukar hoto ta Galili, mai kallo zai iya ganin hotuna masu girma, masu tsaye a duniya - abin da aka fi sani da na'ura mai daukar hoto na duniya ko spyglass. Hakanan yana iya amfani da shi don lura da sama; na wani lokaci yana ɗaya daga cikin waɗanda za su iya gina telescopes masu kyau don wannan dalili. A ranar 25 ga watan Agustan shekara ta 1609, ya nuna daya daga cikin na'urorin sa na farko, tare da girman kusan 8 × ko 9 ×, ga 'yan majalisa na Venetian. Telescopes kuma sun kasance hanyar riba ga Galileo, wanda ya sayar da su ga 'yan kasuwa waɗanda suka same su da amfani a teku da kuma kayan kasuwanci. Ya buga bincikensa na farko na astronomical a watan Maris na shekara ta 1610 a cikin wani taƙaitaccen littafi mai taken Sidereus Nuncius (Starry Messenger).[7]

Hoton wata daga Sidereus Nuncius, wanda aka buga a Venice, 1610

A ranar 30 ga Nuwamba 1609, Galileo ya yi amfani da na'urar daukar hoto a Wata.[29]Duk da yake ba shine mutum na farko da ya lura da wata ta hanyar madubi ba (masanin lissafi na Ingilishi Thomas Harriot ya yi haka watanni huɗu da suka gabata amma kawai ya ga "baƙon tabo"), Galileo shine na farko da zai gano dalilin rashin daidaituwa kamar yadda haske ya ɓoye daga tsaunuka da craters na wata.[29] A cikin bincikensa, ya kuma yi sigogi na taswirar, yana kimanta tsawo na duwatsu. Wata ba abin da aka daɗe ana tunanin cewa cikakkiyar ma'ana ce ba, kamar yadda Aristotle ya yi iƙirarin, kuma kusan "duniyar" ta farko, "lu'u-lu'u ta har abada don hawa cikin sararin samaniya", kamar yadda Dante ya gabatar. Wani lokaci ana yaba wa Galileo tare da ganowar litattafan wata a latitude a cikin 1632, kodayake Thomas Harriot ko William Gilbert na iya yin hakan a baya. [30]

Mai zane Cigoli, aboki na Galileo, ya haɗa da ainihin kwatancin wata a cikin ɗayan zane-zanensa; mai yiwuwa ya yi amfani da nasa na'urar daukar hoto don yin kallo.[21]

Watanni na Jupiter

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A ranar 7 ga watan Janairun shekara ta 1610, Galileo ya lura da na'urar daukar hoto abin da ya bayyana a lokacin a matsayin "taurari uku masu tsayayya, gaba ɗaya ba a ganuwa ba saboda ƙanƙansu", duk kusa da Jupiter, kuma yana kwance a kan layi madaidaiciya ta hanyarsa.[lower-alpha 4][31]Bincike a daren da suka biyo baya ya nuna cewa matsayin waɗannan "taurari" da suka danganci Jupiter suna canzawa ta hanyar da ba za a iya bayyana su ba idan sun kasance Taurari masu tsayayyu. A ranar 10 ga watan Janairu, Galileo ya lura cewa daya daga cikinsu ya ɓace, wani kallo wanda ya danganta shi da ɓoye a bayan Jupiter. A ranar 13 ga watan Janairu ya ga abubuwa hudu daban-daban, kuma a ranar 15 ga watan Janairun ya kammala cewa suna kewaye da Jupiter: ya gano manyan watanni hudu na Jupiter.[32][31]Wannan binciken ya ba da shaida a cikin goyon bayan tsarin heliocentric na Copernicus. Galileo ya ba da sunan ƙungiyar taurari huɗu na Medicean, don girmama mai kula da shi na gaba, Cosimo II de 'Medici, Grand Duke na Tuscany, da 'yan uwan Cosimo uku.[7]Daga baya masu binciken sararin samaniya, duk da haka, sun sake musu suna tauraron dan adam na Galili don girmama wanda ya gano su. Simon Marius ne ya gano wadannan tauraron dan adam a ranar 8 ga watan Janairun shekara ta 1610 kuma yanzu ana kiransu Io, Europa, Ganymede, da Callisto, sunayen da Marius ya bayar a cikin Mundus Iovialis da aka buga a shekara ta 1614.[33]

Taswirar Faransa da aka gabatar a cikin 1684, yana nuna tsarin taswirar da ta gabata (bayani mai haske) idan aka kwatanta da sabon binciken da aka gudanar ta amfani da watanni na Jupiter a matsayin daidai lokacin (bayani mafi nauyi)

Binciken da Galileo ya yi game da tauraron dan adam na Jupiter ya haifar da gardama a cikin ilimin taurari: duniyar da ke da ƙananan taurari da ke kewaye da ita ba ta dace da ka'idodin Ilimin sararin samaniya na Aristotle ba, wanda ya yi imanin cewa duk abubuwan da ke sama ya kamata su kewaye Duniya, kuma yawancin masanan taurari da falsafa da farko sun ki yarda cewa Galileo na iya gano irin wannan abu.[34][31][31][7]Da yake kara wannan matsala, wasu masu binciken sararin samaniya suna da wahalar tabbatar da abubuwan da Galileo ya lura. Lokacin da ya nuna na'urar daukar hoto a Bologna, masu halarta sun yi ƙoƙari su ga watannin. Ɗaya daga cikinsu, Martin Horky, ya lura cewa wasu taurari masu tsayayya, kamar Spica Virginis, sun bayyana sau biyu ta hanyar madubi. Ya ɗauki wannan a matsayin shaida cewa kayan aikin yaudara ne yayin kallon sammai, yana jefa shakku game da wanzuwar watannin.[35][36]Cibiyar lura da Christopher Clavius a Roma ta tabbatar da abubuwan da aka lura kuma, kodayake ba ta da tabbacin yadda za a fassara su, ta ba Galileo maraba da jarumi lokacin da ya ziyarci shekara mai zuwa.[6]Galileo ya ci gaba da lura da tauraron dan adam a cikin watanni goma sha takwas masu zuwa, kuma a tsakiyar shekara ta 1611, ya sami ƙididdigar ƙididdigatattun lokuta don lokutan su - aikin da Johannes Kepler ya yi imanin ba zai yiwu ba.[31][7]

Galileo ya ga amfani mai amfani ga bincikensa. Tabbatar da matsayin gabas da yamma na jiragen ruwa a teku ya buƙaci a haɗa agogo tare da agogo a farkon meridian. Warware wannan matsalar tana da matukar muhimmanci ga kewayawa mai aminci kuma Spain da Holland sun kafa manyan kyaututtuka don mafita. Tun da yake hasken rana na watannin da ya gano ya kasance sau da yawa kuma ana iya hango lokutan su da cikakken daidaito, ana iya amfani da su don saita agogo na jirgin ruwa kuma Galileo ya nemi kyaututtuka. Binciken watanni daga jirgin ruwa ya zama da wahala sosai, amma an yi amfani da hanyar don binciken ƙasa, gami da sake fasalin Faransa.[37]

Matakai na Venus

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Daga Satumba 1610, Galileo ya lura cewa Venus tana nuna cikakken tsari na matakai masu kama da na wata. Tsarin heliocentric na Copernicus na Tsarin hasken Rana ya yi hasashen cewa duk matakai za su kasance bayyane tun lokacin da Venus ke kewaye da Rana zai sa haskensa ya fuskanci Duniya lokacin da yake a gefen Rana kuma ya fuskanci duniya lokacin da yake kan gefen Duniya na Rana. A cikin Tsarin Ptolemy na geocentric, ba zai yiwu ba ga kowane bangare na taurari ya haɗu da harsashi mai ɗauke da Rana. A al'adance, an sanya orbit na Venus gaba ɗaya a gefen kusa da Sun, inda zai iya nuna kawai crescent da sababbin matakai. Hakanan yana yiwuwa a sanya shi gaba ɗaya a gefen nesa na Rana, inda zai iya nuna kawai gibbous da cikakkun matakai. Bayan binciken da Galileo ya yi game da crescent, gibbous da cikakkun matakai na Venus, tsarin Ptolemaic ya zama wanda ba za a iya jurewa ba.[38] A farkon karni na 17, sakamakon bincikensa, yawancin masu binciken taurari sun canza zuwa ɗaya daga cikin samfuran duniya daban-daban, kamar Tychonic, Capellan da Extended Capellan, kowannensu ko dai tare da ko ba tare da duniya mai juyawa ba.[lower-alpha 5] Wadannan duk sun bayyana matakai na Venus ba tare da 'karyata' cikakken hasashen heliocentrism na parallax na taurari ba.[39][40]

Saturn da Neptune

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A cikin 1610, Galileo ya kuma lura da Saturn, kuma da farko ya yi kuskuren zoben sa don taurari, yana tunanin tsarin jiki uku ne. Lokacin da ya lura da duniyar daga baya, zoben Saturn sun daidaita kai tsaye zuwa Duniya, wanda ya sa ya yi tunanin cewa biyu daga cikin jikin sun ɓace. Zob din ya sake bayyana lokacin da ya lura da duniyar a cikin 1616, ya kara rikitar da shi.

Galileo ya lura da Neptune a cikin 1612. Ya bayyana a cikin litattafansa a matsayin daya daga cikin taurari masu yawa. Bai fahimci cewa duniyar ce ba, amma ya lura da motsi dangane da taurari kafin ya rasa hanyarsa.[41]

Rashin rana

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Galileo ya yi nazarin ido da ido na ido na rana. Rayuwarsu ta haifar da wata matsala tare da kammalawar sammai kamar yadda aka tsara a cikin ilimin lissafi na sama na Aristotle. Wani bambancin shekara-shekara a cikin hanyoyin su, wanda Francesco Sizzi da sauransu suka lura a cikin 1612-1613, kuma ya ba da wata hujja mai ƙarfi game da tsarin Ptolemaic da tsarin geoheliocentric na Tycho Brahe.[31][lower-alpha 6] Rikici game da da da'awar fifiko a cikin gano sunspots, kuma a cikin fassararsu, ya jagoranci Galileo zuwa dogon rikici tare da Jesuit Christoph Scheiner. A tsakiya shine Mark Welser, wanda Scheiner ya sanar da bincikensa, kuma wanda ya tambayi Galileo don ra'ayinsa. Dukansu biyu ba su san abubuwan da Johannes Fabricius ya lura da su ba da kuma buga sunspots.[12]

Milky Way da taurari

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Galileo ya lura da Milky Way, wanda a baya aka yi imanin cewa ba shi da kyau, kuma ya gano cewa tarin taurari ne da suka cika sosai har suka bayyana daga Duniya don zama girgije. Ya gano wasu taurari da yawa da suka yi nisa da ba za a iya gani da ido ba. Ya lura da tauraron biyu Mizar a Ursa Major a cikin 1617 . [45]

A cikin Starry Messenger, Galileo ya ba da rahoton cewa taurari sun bayyana a matsayin hasken haske kawai, wanda ba a canza shi ba ta hanyar madubi, kuma ya bambanta su da taurari, wanda madubi ya bayyana a matsayin diski. Amma ba da daɗewa ba, a cikin wasiƙunsa a kan Sunspots, ya ba da rahoton cewa na'urar daukar hoto ta bayyana siffofin taurari da taurari su zama "kyakkyawan zagaye". Daga wannan batu zuwa gaba, ya ci gaba da bayar da rahoton cewa telescopes sun nuna zagaye na taurari, kuma cewa taurari da aka gani ta hanyar telescope sun auna 'yan seconds na arc a diamita.[46][47]Ya kuma kirkiro wata hanya don auna girman tauraron ba tare da na'urar daukar hoto ba. Hanyar da ya yi ita ce rataye igiya mai laushi a cikin layin gani ga tauraron kuma ya auna iyakar nisan da zai rufe tauraron gaba ɗaya. Daga ma'aunin wannan nisan da faɗin igiyar, zai iya lissafin kusurwar da tauraron ya yi a wurin kallon sa.[48][49][50]

A cikin Tattaunawa, ya ba da rahoton cewa ya sami bayyanar diamita na tauraron farko ba fiye da 5 arcseconds ba, kuma na ɗaya daga cikin na shida ya zama kusan 5/6 arcsecondes. Kamar yawancin masanan taurari na zamaninsa, Galileo bai gane cewa girman taurari da ya auna ba gaskiya ba ne, wanda ya haifar da karkatarwa da rikicewar yanayi, kuma bai wakilci girman taurari na gaskiya ba. Koyaya, dabi'un Galileo sun fi ƙanƙantawa da suka gabata game da girman taurari masu haske, kamar waɗanda Brahe ya yi, kuma ya ba Galileo damar magance muhawarar adawa da Copernican kamar waɗanda Tycho ya yi cewa waɗannan taurari dole ne su kasance masu girma sosai don parallaxes na shekara-shekara ba za a iya gano su ba.[16][50][45]Sauran masanan taurari kamar Simon Marius, Giovanni Battista Riccioli, da Martinus Hortensius sun yi irin wannan ma'auni na taurari, kuma Marius da Riccioli sun kammala cewa ƙananan girman ba su da isasshen amsa gardamar Tycho.[46][47]

Ka'idar raƙuman ruwa

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Galileo Galilei, hoton da Francesco Porcia ya yi

Kadanal Bellarmine ya rubuta a cikin 1615 cewa ba za a iya kare Tsarin Copernican ba tare da "ainihin zahiri na gaskiya cewa rana ba ta kewaye duniya amma duniya ta kewaye rana ba".[16]Galileo ya yi la'akari da ka'idarsa game da raƙuman ruwa don samar da irin wannan shaidar.[51]Wannan ka'idar tana da mahimmanci a gare shi cewa Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo (Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, 1632), an kira shi da farko Dialogue on the Ebb and Flow of the Sea.[16]An cire ambaton raƙuman ruwa daga taken ta hanyar umarnin Inquisition.[16]

Ga Galileo, raƙuman ruwa sun samo asali ne daga ruwa da ruwa a cikin teku yayin da wani batu a saman duniya ya yi sauri kuma ya ragu saboda juyawa na duniya a kan axis da juyawa a kusa da Sun. Ya rarraba labarinsa na farko game da raƙuman ruwa a cikin 1616, wanda aka yi wa Kadanal Orsini.[16]Ka'idarsa ta ba da haske game da muhimmancin siffofin tafkin teku a cikin girman da lokacin raƙuman ruwa; ya lissafa, alal misali, ga raƙuman da ba a kula da su ba a tsakiyar Tekun Adriatic idan aka kwatanta da waɗanda ke ƙarshen.[31][51]

Ka'idar Galileo, duk da haka, ta kasa bayyana abubuwan da aka lura da raƙuman ruwa. Yana nuna kawai babban ruwa daya a kowace rana, kuma a cikin asusunsa na 1616, ya yi iƙirarin cewa wannan ya faru ne a cikin Tekun Atlantika.[51]Ya danganta manyan raƙuman ruwa guda biyu da aka gani a Venice da sauran wurare ga dalilai na biyu, gami da siffar teku, zurfinta, da sauran dalilai.[51][16][50]Koyaya, raƙuman ruwa suna faruwa sau biyu a kowace rana a cikin Tekun Atlantika da mafi yawan teku. Bayan ya koyi wannan, Galileo ya gabatar da ka'idarsa a cikin Tattaunawa ba tare da ambaton Atlantic ko wasu wurare tare da raƙuman ruwa sau ɗaya a kowace rana ba, ya bar tambayoyin raƙuman yau da kullun ba a warware su ba.[52]Ya kuma watsar da ra'ayin, wanda aka sani daga zamanin d ̄ a da kuma na zamani Johannes Kepler, cewa Wata ta haifar da raƙuman ruwa, wanda shine tushen ka'idodin zamani.[50]

Rikici game da comets da The AssayerMai Bincike

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A shekara ta 1619, Galileo ya shiga cikin gardama tare da Uba Orazio Grassi, farfesa na lissafi a Jesuit Collegio Romano . Ya fara ne a matsayin jayayya game da yanayin comets, amma a lokacin da Galileo ya buga Il Saggiatore (The Assayer) a cikin 1623, sautin karshe a cikin jayayya, ya zama jayayya mai yawa game da yanayin kimiyya kanta. Shafin taken littafin ya bayyana Galileo a matsayin masanin falsafa da "Matematico Primario" na Grand Duke na Tuscany . [53]

Saboda The Assayer ya ƙunshi irin wannan wadataccen ra'ayoyin Galileo game da yadda ya kamata a yi kimiyya, an kira shi a matsayin bayanin kimiyya.[54][7]A farkon shekara ta 1619, Uba Grassi ya buga wani ɗan littafin, An Astronomical Disputation on the Three Comets of the Year 1618, wanda ya tattauna yanayin comet wanda ya bayyana a ƙarshen Nuwamba na shekarar da ta gabata.[55] Grassi ya kammala cewa comet wani abu ne mai cin wuta wanda ya motsa tare da wani sashi na babban da'irar a nesa da duniya, kuma tun da yake ya motsa a sama da sannu a hankali fiye da Wata, dole ne ya fi nesa da Wata.[31][55][31]

An soki hujjojin Grassi da ƙaddamarwa a cikin wata kasida ta gaba, Discourse on Comets, wanda aka buga a ƙarƙashin sunan ɗaya daga cikin almajiran Galileo, lauyan Florentine mai suna Mario Guiducci, kodayake Galileo da kansa ne ya rubuta shi. [56][54]Galileo da Guiducci ba su ba da wata ka'ida ta ainihi game da yanayin comets ba, kodayake sun gabatar da wasu ƙididdigar da aka sani yanzu sun yi kuskure.[57][54] (Tayhin da ya dace don nazarin comets an gabatar da shi a lokacin ta hanyar Tycho Brahe.) A cikin sashi na buɗewa, Magana ta Galileo da Guiducci sun zagi Jesuit Christoph Scheiner, kuma maganganu daban-daban marasa ladabi game da farfesa na Collegio Romano sun warwatse a cikin aikin.[7][54][56][7]Jesuits sun yi fushi, kuma nan da nan Grassi ya amsa da wata takarda mai rikitarwa ta kansa, The Astronomical and Philosophical Balance, a karkashin sunan Lothario Sarsio Sigensano, yana da'awar kasancewa ɗaya daga cikin ɗalibansa.[7][54][58][31][58]Mai ba da shawara shine amsar Galileo mai banƙyama ga Ma'aunin Astronomical.[56]An san shi sosai a matsayin babban aikin wallafe-wallafen jayayya, wanda ke fuskantar muhawara ta "Sarsi".[7][57][7]An gaishe shi da yabo mai yawa kuma musamman ya faranta wa sabon shugaban Kirista, Urban na takwas rai, wanda aka keɓe shi.[54]A Roma, a cikin shekaru goma da suka gabata, Barberini, Urban na takwas na gaba, ya sauka a gefen Galileo da Kwalejin Lincean.[59]

Rashin jituwa da Grassi ya rabu da Jesuits da yawa har abada, kuma Galileo da abokansa sun gamsu cewa suna da alhakin kawo hukuncin da ya yi daga baya, kodayake tabbatar da wannan ba cikakke ba ne.[54][7][7][60]

Rikici game da tsakiya na rana

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Hoton Cristiano Banti na 1857 Galileo yana fuskantar Inquisition na RomaGalileo yana fuskantar tuhumar RomawaBinciken Roman

A lokacin rikici na Galileo da Ikilisiya, Yakin addini da Counter-Reformation sun tayar da Turai. Yawancin mutanen da suka yi karatu sun yi rajista ga ra'ayin Aristotelian geocentric cewa Duniya ita ce Cibiyar sararin samaniya da kuma hanyoyin dukkan abubuwa na sama, ko sabon tsarin Tycho Brahe wanda ya haɗu da geocentrism tare da heliocentrisms.[6]Rubuce-rubucen Galileo game da heliocentrism sun fuskanci ƙin yarda na addini da kimiyya. Hamayya ta addini ta samo asali ne daga ayoyin Littafi Mai-Tsarki da ke nuna yanayin duniya.[lower-alpha 7] Hamayya ta kimiyya ta fito ne daga Brahe, wanda ya yi jayayya cewa heliocentrism zai nuna parallax na shekara-shekara, kodayake babu wanda aka lura a lokacin.[lower-alpha 8] Aristarchus da Copernicus sun yi daidai da cewa parallax ba shi da mahimmanci saboda taurari suna da nisa sosai. Koyaya, Brahe ya musanta cewa tunda taurari sun bayyana suna da girman kusurwa mai ma'ana, idan taurari sun kasance da nisa, dole ne su fi Sun girma ko ma da zagaye na Duniya.[63]Ba zai kasance ba har sai da yawa daga baya cewa masu binciken taurari sun fahimci girman taurari ya haifar da wani abu na gani da ake kira airy disk, kuma ayyuka ne na hasken su maimakon girman jiki na gaskiya (duba tarihin girman).[63]

Galileo ya kare heliocentrism bisa ga abubuwan da ya lura da su a shekara ta 1609. A cikin shekara ta 1611, a wannan shekarar ne mambobin Jesuit na Collegio Romano suka amince da binciken Galileo, kwamiti na cardinals ya fara binciken Galileo, yana tambaya idan ya shiga cikin shari'ar Cesare Cremonini, wanda ya koyar tare da Galileo a Jami'ar Padua kuma an tuhume shi da ridda. Wadannan tambayoyin sun nuna karo na farko da aka ambaci sunan Galileo ta Roman Inquisition.

A watan Disamba na shekara ta 1613, Grand Duchess Christina ta Florence ta fuskanci daya daga cikin abokan Galileo da mabiyanta, Benedetto Castelli, tare da ƙin yarda da motsi na Duniya.[lower-alpha 9] Da wannan lamarin ya sa ya sa, Galileo ya rubuta wasika mai shafi takwas ga Castelli inda ya yi jayayya cewa heliocentrism ba ya saba wa matani na Littafi Mai-Tsarki kuma cewa Littafi Mai-Msarki iko ne akan bangaskiya da ɗabi'a, ba kimiyya ba. Ba a buga wannan wasika ba amma an rarraba ta ko'ina.[16]Shekaru biyu bayan haka, Galileo ya rubuta wasika ga Christina wanda ya fadada hujjojinsa zuwa shafuka arba'in.[16]

Hoton Galili na Justus Sustermans, 1635

A shekara ta 1615, an gabatar da rubuce-rubucen Galileo game da heliocentrism ga Roman Inquisition ta Uba Niccolò Lorini, wanda ya yi iƙirarin cewa Galileo da mabiyansa suna ƙoƙarin sake fassara Littafi Mai-Tsarki, wanda aka gani a matsayin keta Majalisar Trent kuma ya yi kama da Furotesta.[g][65]Lorini musamman ya ambaci wasikar Galileo ga Castelli.[16]Galileo ya tafi Roma don kare kansa da ra'ayoyinsa. A farkon shekara ta 1616, Francesco Ingoli ya fara muhawara tare da Galileo, ya aiko masa da wata kasida da ke jayayya da tsarin Copernican. Galileo daga baya ya bayyana cewa ya yi imanin cewa wannan rubutun ya taimaka wajen yaki da Copernicanism da ya biyo baya.[66]Wataƙila Inquisition ta ba da izini ga Ingoli don rubuta ra'ayi na ƙwararru game da gardamar, tare da rubutun da ke ba da tushen ayyukan Inquisition.[8]Rubutun ya mayar da hankali kan hujjoji goma sha takwas na jiki da lissafi game da heliocentrism. Ya samo asali ne daga muhawara ta Tycho Brahe, musamman cewa heliocentrism zai buƙaci taurari kamar yadda suka bayyana sun fi Sun girma.[lower-alpha 10] Rubutun ya hada da muhawara huɗu na tauhidi, amma Ingoli ya ba da shawarar Galileo ya mai da hankali kan muhawara ta jiki da lissafi, kuma bai ambaci ra'ayoyin Littafi Mai-Tsarki na Galileo ba.[66]

A watan Fabrairun shekara ta 1616, kwamitin Inquisitorial ya bayyana cewa heliocentrism ya zama "wawa da wauta a falsafar, kuma a hukumance ya zama ridda tunda a bayyane ya saba wa ma'anar Nassi Mai Tsarki a wurare da yawa". Inquisition ta gano cewa ra'ayin motsi na Duniya "yana karɓar hukunci iri ɗaya a falsafar kuma ... game da gaskiyar tauhidin, aƙalla kuskure ne a bangaskiya".[68]  Paparoma Paul V ya umarci Kadanal Bellarmine ya gabatar da wannan binciken ga Galileo, da kuma umarce shi da ya bar heliocentrism. A ranar 26 ga Fabrairu, an kira Galileo zuwa gidan Bellarmine kuma ya umarce shi "ya watsar gaba ɗaya ... ra'ayin cewa rana tana tsaye har yanzu a tsakiyar duniya kuma Duniya tana motsawa, kuma daga nan gaba kada a riƙe shi, koyarwa, ko kare shi a kowace hanya, ko dai ta baki ko a rubuce".  Dokar Ikilisiyar Index ta haramta De Revolutionibus na Copernicus da sauran ayyukan heliocentric har sai an gyara shi.[69][69]

Shekaru goma masu zuwa, Galileo ya kasance nesa da gardamar. Ya farfado da aikinsa na rubuta littafi a kan batun, wanda aka karfafa shi da zaben Kadinal Maffeo Barberini a matsayin Paparoma Urban na takwas a 1623. Barberini aboki ne kuma mai sha'awar Galileo kuma ya yi adawa da gargadi na Galileo a cikin 1616. Littafin da Galileo ya samo asali, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, an buga shi a cikin 1632, tare da izini na musamman daga Inquisition da izinin papal.[70]

Tun da farko, Paparoma Urban na takwas da kansa ya nemi Galileo ya ba da hujjoji don da kuma adawa da heliocentrism a cikin littafin kuma ya yi hankali kada ya ba da shawarar heliocentristm. Ko ba tare da sani ba ko da gangan ba, Simplicio, mai kare ra'ayi na Aristotle a cikin Tattaunawa game da Tsarin Duniya guda Biyu, sau da yawa ana kama shi cikin kurakuran kansa kuma wani lokacin ya zo a matsayin wawa. Lalle ne, kodayake Galileo ya bayyana a cikin gabatarwar littafinsa cewa an sanya sunan halayen ne bayan sanannen masanin falsafar Aristotelian (Simplicius a Latin, "Simplicio" a Italiyanci), sunan "Simplecio" a cikin Italiyanci kuma yana da ma'anar "Mai sauƙi".[9][71]

Wannan hoton Simplicio ya sa Tattaunawa game da Babban Tsarin Duniya guda Biyu ya bayyana a matsayin jayayya game da tsarin Aristotelian a cikin kare ka'idar Copernican. Yawancin masana tarihi sun yarda cewa Galileo bai yi niyyar yin ba'a ba'a kuma ya yi mamakin yadda aka yi wa littafinsa.[lower-alpha 11]

Koyaya, Paparoma bai ɗauki rashin girmamawar jama'a ba, ko kuma goyon bayan Copernican.[75]Dava Sobel ya yi jayayya cewa kafin shari'ar Galileo ta 1633 da hukunci don ridda, an zargi Paparoma Urban na takwas da rauni wajen kare cocin, kuma ya damu da rikice-rikicen kotu da matsalolin jihar, yana tsoron har ma da rayuwarsa. A cikin wannan mahallin, Sobel ya yi jayayya cewa Urban ya ji an ci amanarsa da Galileo's Dialogues, kuma masu shiga kotu da abokan gaba na Galileo sun yi amfani da wannan jin.[15]Mario Livio ya sanya al'amarin Galileo a cikin mahallin kimiyya da siyasa na zamani, yana yin kwatankwacin ƙin kimiyya na zamani.

Dubi kuma

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  • Cocin Katolika da kimiyya
  • Na biyu pendulum
  • Gidan magana na Galileo
  • Villa Il Gioiello

Manazarta

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Bayani

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Babban tushe da aka ambata

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Manazarta

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  1. ↑ English: /ˌɡælɪˈleɪoʊ ˌɡælɪˈleɪ/ Samfuri:Respell, US also /ˌɡælɪˈliːoʊ -/ Samfuri:Respell; it.
  2. ↑ Though a unified Italian state did not exist and Galilei was instead a national of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the Latin equivalent of the term Italian (italus) had been in use for natives of the region since antiquity.[1] Crucially, the intellectuals and the bourgeoisie of the region self-identified as Italiani at least since the 14th century,[2][3][4] and Galilei himself did.[5]
  3. ↑ Maurice Finocchiaro, in the source referenced here for this "pun" story (Finocchiaro 1989, 330–331) states, "I am not aware of any direct documentary evidence [for this story], nor is any reference given by the various authors who repeat the story." He also notes that the earliest mention of the story seems to be 1773.
  4. ↑ i.e., invisible to the naked eye.
  5. ↑ In the Capellan model only Mercury and Venus orbit the Sun, whilst in its extended version such as expounded by Riccioli, Mars also orbits the Sun, but the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn are centred on the Earth.
  6. ↑ In geostatic systems the apparent annual variation in the motion of sunspots could only be explained as the result of an implausibly complicated precession of the Sun's axis of rotation.[42][43][44] This did not apply, however, to the modified version of Tycho's system introduced by his protégé, Longomontanus, in which the Earth was assumed to rotate. Longomontanus's system could account for the apparent motions of sunspots just as well as the Copernican.
  7. ↑ Such passages include Psalm 93:1, 96:10, and 1 Chronicles 16:30 which include text stating, "The world also is established. It can not be moved." In the same manner, Psalm 104:5 says, "He (the Lord) laid the foundations of the earth, that it should not be moved forever." Further, Ecclesiastes 1:5 states, "The sun also rises, and the sun goes down, and hurries to its place where it rises", and Joshua 10:14 states, "Sun, stand still on Gibeon...".[61]
  8. ↑ The discovery of the aberration of light by James Bradley in January 1729 was the first conclusive evidence for the movement of the Earth, and hence for Aristarchus, Copernicus and Kepler's theories; it was announced in January 1729.[62] The second evidence was produced by Friedrich Bessel in 1838.
  9. ↑ According to Maurice Finocchiaro, this was done in a friendly and gracious manner, out of curiosity.[64]
  10. ↑ Ingoli wrote that the great distance to the stars in the heliocentric theory "clearly proves ... the fixed stars to be of such size, as they may surpass or equal the size of the orbit circle of the Earth itself".[67]
  11. ↑ Drake asserts that Simplicio's character is modelled on the Aristotelian philosophers Lodovico delle Colombe and Cesare Cremonini, rather than Urban.[72] He also considers that the demand for Galileo to include the Pope's argument in the Dialogue left him with no option but to put it in the mouth of Simplicio.[73] Even Arthur Koestler, who is generally quite harsh on Galileo in The Sleepwalkers, after noting that Urban suspected Galileo of having intended Simplicio to be a caricature of him, says "this of course is untrue".[74]
Cite error: <ref> tags exist for a group named "lower-alpha", but no corresponding <references group="lower-alpha"/> tag was found.
  1. ↑ Pliny the Younger, Letters 9.23.
  2. ↑ Dante, 5th Epistle.
  3. ↑ Boccaccio, Decameron II, 9
  4. ↑ Catherine of Siena, Letter 310
  5. ↑ Galileo Galilei, Lettera di Galileo Galilei agl'Illustrissimi e Potentiss. Signori Ordini Generali delle confederate Provincie Belgiche, 1636, in Opere di Galileo Galilei, Società tipografica de' classici italiani, 1811, p. 268
  6. 1 2 3 4 Hannam 2009.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Sharratt 1994.
  8. 1 2 Finocchiaro 2010.
  9. 1 2 Finocchiaro 1997.
  10. ↑ Hilliam 2005.
  11. 1 2 O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E .F. "Galileo Galilei". The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive. University of St Andrews, Scotland. Retrieved 24 July 2007.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 Gribbin 2008.
  13. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  14. 1 2 Gilbert, N. W. (1963). "Galileo and the School of Padua". Journal of the History of Philosophy. 1 (2): 223–231. doi:10.1353/hph.2008.1474. ISSN 0022-5053. S2CID 144276512.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 Sobel 2000.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Finocchiaro 1989.
  17. ↑ George V. Coyne; Olaf Pedersen. Michał Heller. Missing |author2= (help)
  18. ↑ Reston 2000.
  19. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "Asimov".
  20. ↑ Len Fisher (16 February 2016). "Galileo, Dante Alighieri, and how to calculate the dimensions of hell". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 9 January 2022.
  21. 1 2 Ostrow, Steven F. (June 1996). "Cigoli's Immacolata and Galileo's Moon: Astronomy and the Virgin in early seicento Rome". MutualArt (in Turanci). Retrieved 27 September 2020.
  22. ↑ Panofsky, Erwin (1956). "Galileo as a Critic of the Arts: Aesthetic Attitude and Scientific Thought". Isis. 47 (1): 3–15. doi:10.1086/348450. JSTOR 227542. S2CID 145451645.
  23. ↑ Rutkin, H. D. "Galileo, Astrology, and the Scientific Revolution: Another Look". Program in History & Philosophy of Science & Technology, Stanford University. Retrieved 15 April 2007.
  24. ↑ Battistini, Andrea (2018). "Galileo as Practising Astrologer". Journal for the History of Astronomy. Journal of the History Of Astronomy, Sage. 49 (3): 388–391. Bibcode:2018JHA....49..345.. doi:10.1177/0021828618793218. S2CID 220119861. Retrieved 30 December 2020.
  25. ↑ "Museo Galileo – Multimedia – Water-raising machine". catalogue.museogalileo.it. Archived from the original on 2024-05-19. Retrieved 2025-10-05.
  26. ↑ Kollerstrom, N. (October 2004). "Galileo and the new star" (PDF). Astronomy Now. 18 (10): 58–59. Bibcode:2004AsNow..18j..58K. ISSN 0951-9726. Retrieved 20 February 2017.
  27. ↑ King 2003.
  28. ↑ Drake 1990.
  29. 1 2 Edgerton 2009.
  30. ↑ Stephen Pumfrey (15 April 2009). "Harriot's maps of the Moon: new interpretations". Notes and Records of the Royal Society. 63 (2): 163–168. doi:10.1098/rsnr.2008.0062.
  31. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Drake 1978.
  32. ↑ "New Moons: Our History of Solar System Satellites". www.mos.org. Museum of Science. Retrieved 6 May 2026.
  33. ↑ Pasachoff, J. M. (May 2015). "Simon Marius's Mundus Iovialis: 400th Anniversary in Galileo's Shadow". Journal for the History of Astronomy. 46 (2): 218–234. Bibcode:2015JHA....46..218P. doi:10.1177/0021828615585493. S2CID 120470649.
  34. ↑ Linton 2004.
  35. ↑ Feyerabend 1975.
  36. ↑ Naess 2004.
  37. ↑ "Solving Longitude: Jupiter's Moons". Royal Museums Greenwich. 16 October 2014.
  38. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  39. ↑ Thoren 1989.
  40. ↑ Hoskin 1999.
  41. ↑ Drake & Kowal 1980.
  42. ↑ Linton 2004, p. 212.
  43. ↑ Sharratt 1994, p. 166.
  44. ↑ Drake 1970, pp. 191–196.
  45. 1 2 Ondra 2004.
  46. 1 2 Graney 2010.
  47. 1 2 Graney & Grayson 2011.
  48. ↑ Van Helden 1985.
  49. ↑ Chalmers 1999.
  50. 1 2 3 4 Galilei 1953.
  51. 1 2 3 4 Naylor 2007.
  52. ↑ Graney 2024.
  53. ↑ "Career as a Scientist | Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) | Stories Preschool". www.storiespreschool.com. Retrieved 31 August 2023.
  54. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Drake 1960.
  55. 1 2 Grassi 1960a.
  56. 1 2 3 Galilei & Guiducci 1960.
  57. 1 2 Drake 1957.
  58. 1 2 Grassi 1960b.
  59. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  60. ↑ Blackwell 2006.
  61. ↑ Brodrick 1965, p. 95.
  62. ↑ Bradley, James (1728). "A Letter from the Reverend Mr. James Bradley Savilian Professor of Astronomy at Oxford, and F.R.S. to Dr. Edmond Halley Astronom. Reg. &c. Giving an Account of a New Discovered Motion of the Fix'd Stars". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 35 (406): 637–661. doi:10.1098/rstl.1727.0064.
  63. 1 2 Graney & Danielson 2014.
  64. ↑ Finocchiaro 1989, pp. 27–28.
  65. ↑ Langford 1998.
  66. 1 2 Graney 2015.
  67. ↑ Graney 2015, p. 71.
  68. ↑ Finocchiaro, M. "West Chester University – History of Astronomy; Lecture notes: Texts from The Galileo Affair: A Documentary History". West Chester University. ESS 362 / 562. Archived from the original on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 18 February 2014.
  69. 1 2 Heilbron 2010.
  70. ↑ "Pope Urban VIII Biography". Galileo Project.
  71. ↑ Moss & Wallace 2003.
  72. ↑ Drake 1978, p. 355.
  73. ↑ Drake 1953, p. 491.
  74. ↑ Koestler 1990, p. 483.
  75. ↑ Finocchiaro 2007b.
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