LĂȘ dynasty
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ÄáșĄi Viá»t 性è¶ć ÄáșĄi Viá»t Quá»c | |||||||||||||||
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| 1428â1527 1533â1789 | |||||||||||||||
 The seal "BĂŹnh HáșŁi tÆ°á»ng quĂąn chi áș„n" (ćčłæ”·ć°è»äčć°) of emperor LĂȘ ThĂĄi TĂŽng
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| Status | Internal imperial system within tributary state of China[1][2][3]
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| Capital | ÄĂŽng Kinh (1428â1527 and 1592â1789) TĂąy Kinh (temp) (1543â1592) | ||||||||||||||
| Capital-in-exile | Xam Neua (1531â1540) | ||||||||||||||
| Official languages | Literary Chinese[a] (written)[4]:â207â[5] | ||||||||||||||
| Common languages | Middle Vietnamese Other local languages | ||||||||||||||
| Religion | Vietnamese folk religion, Confucianism (state ideology),[6] Buddhism, Taoism, Islam,[7] Roman Catholicism | ||||||||||||||
| Government | Absolute monarchy (1428-1527) Absolute monarchy under hereditary military dictatorship (1533-1788) | ||||||||||||||
| Emperor (HoĂ ng Äáșż) | Â | ||||||||||||||
âąÂ 1428â1433 (first) | LĂȘ ThĂĄi Tá» | ||||||||||||||
âąÂ 1522â1527 | LĂȘ Cung HoĂ ng | ||||||||||||||
âąÂ 1533â1548 | LĂȘ Trang TĂŽng | ||||||||||||||
âąÂ 1786â1789 (last) | LĂȘ ChiĂȘu Thá»ng | ||||||||||||||
| Regents and Viceroys (de facto rulers) | Â | ||||||||||||||
âąÂ 1533â1545 (first) | Nguyá» n Kim | ||||||||||||||
âąÂ 1545â1787 | Trá»nh lords | ||||||||||||||
âąÂ 1786â1788 (last) | Nguyá» n Huá» | ||||||||||||||
| Historical era | Early modern | ||||||||||||||
| 1418â1427 | |||||||||||||||
âąÂ Coronation of LĂȘ Lợi | 29 April 1428 | ||||||||||||||
âąÂ MáșĄc ÄÄng Dung usurped the throne | 15 June 1527 | ||||||||||||||
âąÂ Recapture of ÄĂŽng Kinh | December 1592 | ||||||||||||||
| 30 January 1789 | |||||||||||||||
| Population | |||||||||||||||
âąÂ 1490[8] | 7,700,000 | ||||||||||||||
| Currency | Copper-alloy and zinc cash coins (æ) | ||||||||||||||
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| Today part of | Vietnam China Laos Cambodia | ||||||||||||||
| LĂȘ | |
|---|---|
| Country | Kingdom of ÄáșĄi Viá»t (Vietnam) |
| Founded | 15th century |
| Founder | LĂȘ Lợi |
| Final ruler | LĂȘ ChiĂȘu Thá»ng |
| Titles |
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| Estate | ThÄng Long |
| Deposition | 1789 |
The LĂȘ dynasty, also known in historiography as the Later LĂȘ dynasty (Vietnamese: NhĂ Háșu LĂȘ or Triá»u Háșu LĂȘ, chữ HĂĄn: æćŸé», chữ NĂŽm: èčćŸé»[b]), was the longest-ruling Vietnamese dynasty, having ruled ÄáșĄi Viá»t (chữ HĂĄn: 性è¶) from 1428 to 1789 with an interregnum between 1527 and 1533. The LĂȘ dynasty is divided into two historical periods: the Initial LĂȘ dynasty (Vietnamese: triá»u LĂȘ sÆĄ or nhĂ LĂȘ SÆĄ, chữ HĂĄn: æé»ć, chữ NĂŽm: èčé»ć; 1428â1527) before the usurpation by the MáșĄc dynasty, in which emperors ruled in their own right, and the Revival LĂȘ dynasty (Vietnamese: triá»u LĂȘ Trung hÆ°ng or nhĂ LĂȘ Trung hÆ°ng, chữ HĂĄn: æé»äžè, chữ NĂŽm: èčé»äžè; 1533â1789), in which the emperors were figures who reigned under the auspices of the powerful Trá»nh family. The Revival LĂȘ dynasty was marked by two lengthy civil wars: the LĂȘâMáșĄc War (1533â1592) in which two dynasties battled for legitimacy in northern Vietnam and the Trá»nhâNguyá» n Wars (1627â1672, 1774â1777) between the Trá»nh lords in North and the Nguyá» n lords of the South.
The dynasty officially began in 1428 with the enthronement of LĂȘ Lợi after he drove the Ming Chinese army from Vietnam. The dynasty reached its peak during the reign of LĂȘ ThĂĄnh TĂŽng and declined after his death in 1497. In 1527, the MáșĄc dynasty usurped the throne; when the LĂȘ dynasty was restored in 1533, the MáșĄc fled to the far north and continued to claim the throne during the period known as Southern and Northern Dynasties. The restored LĂȘ emperors held no real power, and by the time the MáșĄc dynasty was finally eradicated in 1677, actual power lay in the hands of the Trá»nh lords in the North and Nguyá» n lords in the South, both ruling in the name of the LĂȘ emperor while fighting each other. The LĂȘ dynasty officially ended in 1789, when the peasant uprising of the TĂąy SÆĄn brothers defeated both the Trá»nh and the Nguyá» n, ironically in order to restore power to the LĂȘ dynasty.
The LĂȘ dynasty continued the Nam tiáșżn expansion of Vietnam's borders southwards through the domination of the Kingdom of Champa and expedition into today Laos and Myanmar, nearly reaching Vietnam's modern borders by the time of the TĂąy SÆĄn uprising. It also saw massive changes to Vietnamese society: the previously Buddhist state became Confucian after the preceding 20 years of Ming rule. The LĂȘ emperors instituted many changes modeled after the Chinese system, including the civil service and laws. Their long-lasting rule was attributed to the popularity of the early emperors. LĂȘ Lợi's liberation of the country from 20 years of Ming rule and LĂȘ ThĂĄnh TĂŽng's bringing the country into a golden age was well-remembered by the people. Even though the restored LĂȘ emperors' rule was marked by civil strife and constant peasant uprisings, few dared to openly challenge their power for fear of losing popular support. The LĂȘ dynasty also was the period Vietnam saw the coming of Western Europeans and Christianity in early 16th-century.[9]
History
[edit]Lam SÆĄn uprising (1418â1427)
[edit]
During the Fourth Chinese domination of Vietnam, LĂȘ Lợi led an uprising against the rule of the Ming dynasty in 1418,[10][11][12][13][14][15] after resistance forces of two Tráș§n dynasty princes Tráș§n Ngá»i and Tráș§n QuĂœ KhoĂĄng were crushed by the Ming army. He joined a secret Taoist swearing commentary in LĆ©ng Nhai, Thanh HoĂĄ in winter 1416, with other 18 men, who all swore they would fight against the Ming Chinese and restore Vietnamese independence and sovereignty.[16]
The Lam SÆĄn ("blue mountain") campaign began on the day after Táșżt (Lunar New Year) in February 1418.[17] In November 1424, the Lam SÆĄn captured the Nghá» An citadel in a surprise attack from their base in Laos, leading to the retreat of the ethnic-Vietnamese Ming commander LÆ°ÆĄng Nhữ Há»t (Liang Juihu) to the north. From their new base in high-density population Nghá» An, LĂȘ Lợi's rebel forces captured the territory in modern-day central Vietnam, from Thanh HoĂĄ to ÄĂ Náș”ng.[18] By August 1426, the Lam SÆĄn rebellion launched an offensive to the north with new forces against a fresh Ming army commanded by Wang Tong in charge of defending northern Vietnam.[19][better source needed] The new Ming ruler, the Xuande Emperor, wished to end the war with Vietnam, but his advisors urged one more effort to subdue the rebellious province. Consequently, the Ming sent a large army of approximately 100,000 men to Vietnam.[20] After the pivotal Battle of Tá»t Äá»ng â ChĂșc Äá»ng in October 1426, the Ming dynasty withdrew by 1428.[21] By early 1427, LĂȘ Lợi's forces had controlled most of northern Vietnam, advancing as far as the southern tip of modern-day Guangxi. Following negotiations with the Ming, LĂȘ Lợi selected Tráș§n CáșŁo as a puppet king of Annam who nominally ruled from 1426 to 1428.[22][21]
Early period (1428â1527)
[edit]LĂȘ Lợi (1428â1433)
[edit]In 1428, LĂȘ Lợi established the LĂȘ dynasty and took the reign name LĂȘ ThĂĄi Tá», receiving recognition and formal protection from the Ming dynasty in a tributary relationship.[1][2][3][23]In 1429, he introduced the Thuáșn ThiĂȘn code, largely based on the Tang Code, with severe charges for gambling, bribery and corruption.[24][25] LĂȘ Lợi granted a land reform in 1429 that took lands from people who collaborated with the Chinese and distributed them among landless peasants and soldiers. He distrusted many of his former generals, resulting in the 1430 execution of the two generals Tráș§n NguyĂȘn HĂŁn and PháșĄm VÄn XáșŁo that is considered by Vietnamese historians as a political purge.[26]
| Háșu LĂȘ triá»u | |
| Vietnamese alphabet | nhĂ Háșu LĂȘ Háșu LĂȘ triá»u |
|---|---|
| HĂĄn-NĂŽm | èčćŸé» |
| Chữ HĂĄn | ćŸé»æ |
LĂȘ Lợi's reign would be short-lived, as he died in 1433.[27]
LĂȘ ThĂĄi TĂŽng (ruled 1433â1442)
[edit]| History of Vietnam |
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 Vietnam portal |
LĂȘ ThĂĄi TĂŽng (é»ć€Șćź, ruled 1433â1442)[28] was the official heir to LĂȘ Lợi. However, he was just eleven, so a close friend of LĂȘ Lợi, LĂȘ SĂĄt, assumed the regency of the kingdom. Not long after he assumed the official title as Emperor of Vietnam in 1438, LĂȘ ThĂĄi TĂŽng accused LĂȘ SĂĄt of abuse of power and had him executed. In December 1435, ThĂĄi TĂŽng ordered general TÆ° MĂŁ TĂąy to subdue the TĂ y chief Cáș§m QuĂœ who having a ten-thousand army of raiders in the northwest region.[29]
In January 1436, the emperor ordered to make roads and canals from northwest region to the capital for showing the superior power of the Imperial court to the local tribes men.[30] From 1437 to 1441, tribe men from Ai-Lao crossed the Annamite Range, raided in Thanh HĂła and southern HÆ°ng HĂła (now SÆĄn La province) with the help of the local raiders led by Nghiá» m Sinh TÆ°á»Łng were suppressed by the Imperial army.[31] The LĂȘ dynasty started treating hostilely to the ethnic minorities in western region. On a stone monument that was carved in 1439 under ThĂĄi TĂŽng's reign said "Bá»n-Man (Muang Phuan) barbarians were against our assimilation, they need to be exterminated to their roots, and with the SÆĄn-Man (MÆ°á»ng and Chứt) barbaric raiders, we need to eliminated all of them,..."[32]
According to a MáșĄcâTrá»nh version of Complete Annals of ÄáșĄi Viá»t, the new Emperor had a weakness for women. He had many wives, and he discarded one favorite after another. The most prominent scandal was his affair with Nguyá» n Thá» Lá», the wife of his father's chief advisor Nguyá» n TrĂŁi. The affair started early in 1442 and continued when the Emperor traveled to the home of Nguyá» n TrĂŁi, who was venerated as a great Confucian scholar.[citation needed]
Shortly after the Emperor left TrĂŁi's home to continue his tour of the western province, he fell ill and died. At the time the powerful nobles in the court argued that the Emperor had been poisoned to death. Nguyá» n TrĂŁi was executed as were his three entire relations, the normal punishment for treason at that time.[citation needed]
LĂȘ NhĂąn TĂŽng (ruled 1442â1459)
[edit]With the Emperor's sudden death at a young age, his infant heir Bang Co was made emperor - although he was the second son of his father, his older brother Nghi DĂąn had been officially passed over due to his mother's low social status. Bang Co assumed the throne as LĂȘ NhĂąn TĂŽng (é»ä»ćź)[28] but the real rulers were Trá»nh KháșŁ and the child's mother, the young Empress Nguyá» n Thá» Anh. The next 17 years were good years for Vietnam â there were no great troubles either internally or externally. Two things of note occurred: first, the Vietnamese sent an army south to attack the Champa kingdom in 1446; second, the Dowager Empress ordered the execution of Trá»nh KháșŁ, for reasons lost to history, in 1451. In 1453 at the age of twelve, LĂȘ NhĂąn TĂŽng was formally given the title of Emperor. This was unusual as according to custom, youths could not ascend the throne till the age of 16. It may have been done to remove Nguyá» n Thi Anh from power, but if that was the reason, it failed and the Dowager Empress still controlled the government up until a coup in 1459.[citation needed]
In 1459, LĂȘ NhĂąn TĂŽng's older brother, Nghi DĂąn, plotted with a group of followers to kill the Emperor. On October 28, the plotters with some 100 "shiftless men" infiltrated the palace and murdered the Emperor (he was just 18). The next day, facing certain execution the Dowager Empress committed suicide. The rule of Nghi DĂąn was brief, and he was never officially recognized as a sovereign by later Vietnamese historians. Revolts against his rule started almost immediately and the second revolt, occurring on June 24, 1460, succeeded. The rebels, led by LĂȘ Lợi's surviving former advisors Nguyá» n XĂ and Dinh LiĂȘt captured and killed Nghi DĂąn along with his followers. The rebels then selected the youngest son of LĂȘ ThĂĄi TĂŽng to be the new Emperor, who they proclaimed to be LĂȘ ThĂĄnh TĂŽng.
LĂȘ ThĂĄnh TĂŽng (ruled 1460â1497)
[edit]Quang Thuáșn HoĂ ng Äáșż (ć é çćž),[28] whose reign was named Há»ng Äức Thá»nh Tháșż (æŽȘćŸ·äčçæČ», "Prosperous reign of Há»ng Äức"), instituted a wide range of government reforms, legal reforms, and land reforms. He restarted the examination system for selecting men for important government positions. He reduced the power of the noble families and reduced the degree of corruption in the government. He built temples to Confucius throughout the provinces of ÄáșĄi Viá»t. In nearly all respects, his reforms mirrored those of the Ming dynasty. ThĂĄnh TĂŽng was strongly influenced by his Confucian teachers and he resolved to make Viá»t Nam more like the Ming dynasty with its Neo-Confucianist philosophy and the key idea that the government should be run by men of noble character as opposed to men from noble families. This meant that he needed to take power away from the ruling families (mostly from Thanh HĂła province) and give power to the scholars who did well on the official examinations. The first step on this path was to revive the examination process, which had continued sporadically in the 1450s. The first examination was held in 1463 and, as expected, the top scholars were men from elsewhere- usually from the river delta surrounding the capital, not from Thanh HĂła.[citation needed]In 1467, LĂȘ ThĂĄnh TĂŽng changed the name of the state to "ThiĂȘn Nam" (Heavenly South) to make the parallel position with their northern neighbor and shared classical culture more explicit.[33]
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ThĂĄnh TĂŽng encouraged the spread of Confucian values throughout Vietnam by having "temples of literature" built in all the provinces. There, Confucius was venerated and classic works on Confucianism could be found. He also halted the building of any new Buddhist or Taoist temples and ordered that monks were not to be allowed to purchase any new land.[citation needed]
LĂȘ ThĂĄnh TĂŽng introduced reforms designed to replace the Thanh HoĂĄ oligarchy of Dai Viet's southern region with a corps of bureaucrats selected through the Confucian civil service examinations.[34] Following the Chinese model, he divided the government into six ministries: Finance, Rites, Justice, Personnel, Army, and Public Works. Nine grades of rank were set up for both the civil administration and the military. A Board of Censors was set up with imperial authority to monitor governmental officials and reported exclusively to the emperor. However, governmental authority did not extend all the way to the village level. The villages were ruled by their own councils in Vietnam.[35]
With the death of Nguyá» n XĂ in 1465, the noble families from Thanh HĂła province lost their leader. Soon they were mostly relegated to secondary positions in the new Confucian government of ThĂĄnh TĂŽng. However, they still retained control over Vietnam's armies as the old general, Äinh Liá»t, was still in command of the army.[citation needed] In the same year, Vietnam was attacked by Ryukyuan pirates from the northeast. This was dealt with by sending additional forces to the north to fight the pirates. ThĂĄnh TĂŽng also sent a military force to the west to subdue the Ai-lao mountain tribes that was raiding the northwest border.[citation needed]In 1469, all of Vietnam was mapped and a full census was taken, listing all the villages in the Empire. Around this time the country was divided into 13 dao (provinces). Each was administrated by a Governor, Judge, and the local army commander. The emperor ThĂĄnh TĂŽng also ordered that a new census should be taken every six years. Other public works that were undertaken included building and repair of granaries, using the army to rebuild and repair irrigation systems after floods, and sending out doctors to areas afflicted by outbreaks of disease. Even though the emperor, at 25, was relatively young, he had already restored Vietnam's stability, which was a marked contrast from the turbulent times marking the reigns of the two emperors before him.
Article 344 of the Nguyen dynasty code and Article 305 of the Le dynasty code both forbade self-castration and castration of Vietnamese men.[36] Self-castration of Vietnamese men was banned by LĂȘ ThĂĄnh TĂŽng, the emperor, in 1464.[37]
The Vietnamese under Emperor Le Thanh Tong cracked down on foreign contacts and enforced an isolationist policy. A large amount of trade between Guangdong (Leizhou Peninsula and Hainan) and Vietnam happened during this time. Early accounts recorded that the Vietnamese captured Chinese whose ships had blown off course and detained them. Young Chinese men were selected by the Vietnamese for castration to become eunuch slaves to the Vietnamese. It has been speculated by modern historians that Chinese who were captured and castrated by the Vietnamese were involved in regular trade between China and Vietnam instead of being blown off course, and that they were punished after a Vietnamese crackdown on trade with foreign countries.[38][39]
A 1499 entry in the Ming Shilu recorded that thirteen Chinese men from Wenchang including a young man named Wu Rui were captured by the Vietnamese after their ship was blown off course while traveling from Hainan to Guangdong's Qin subprefecture (Qinzhou), after which they ended up near the coast of Vietnam, in the 1460s, during the Chenghua Emperor's rule (1464â1487). Twelve of them were enslaved to work as agricultural laborers, while the youngest Chinese man, Wu Rui (ćłç) was selected by the Vietnamese court for castration since he was the only young man in among the thirteen and he became a eunuch at the Vietnamese imperial palace in Thang Long for nearly one fourth of a century. After years of serving the Vietnamese as a eunuch slave in the palace, he was promoted to a position with real power after the death of the Vietnamese ruler in 1497 to a military position in northern Vietnam as military superintendent since his service in the palace was apparently valued by the Vietnamese. However the LáșĄng SÆĄn guard soldier DÆ°ÆĄng Tam tri (Yang Sanzhi) (æ„äžç„) told him of an escape route back to China and Wu Rui escaped to Longzhou after walking for 9 days through the mountains. The local ethnic minority Tusi chief Wei Chen took him into custody, overruling objections from his family who wanted to send him back to Vietnam. Vietnam found out about his escape and sent an agent to buy Wu Rui back from Wei Chen with 100 Jin in payment since they were scared that Wu Rui would reveal Vietnamese state secrets to China. Wei Chen planned to sell him back to the Vietnamese but told them the amount they were offering was too little and demanded more however before they could agree on a price, Wu was rescued by the Pingxiang magistrate Li Guangning and then was sent to Beijing to work as a eunuch in the Ming palace at the Directorate of Ceremonial (silijian taijian ćžçŠźçŁć€ȘçŁ).[40][41][42][43][44][45] The ÄáșĄi Viá»t sá» kĂœ toĂ n thÆ° records that in 1467 in An Bang province of Dai Viet (now QuáșŁng Ninh Province) a Chinese ship blew off course onto the shore. The Chinese were detained and not allowed to return to China as ordered by Le Thanh Tong.[46][47][48][49][50] This incident may be the same one where Wu Rui was captured.[41]
Several Malay envoys from the Malacca sultanate were attacked and captured in 1469 by Vietnamese navy as they were returning to Malacca from China. The Vietnamese enslaved and castrated the young from among the captured.[51][52][53][54][55][56]
A 1472 entry in the Ming Shilu reported that some Chinese from Nanhai escaped back to China after their ship had been blown off course into Vietnam, where they had been forced to serve as soldiers in Vietnam's military. The escapees also reported that they found out that more than 100 Chinese men remained captives in Vietnam after they were caught and castrated by the Vietnamese after their ships were blown off course into Vietnam in other incidents. The Chinese Ministry of Revenue responded by ordering Chinese civilians and soldiers to stop going abroad to foreign countries.[57][58] These 100 men were taken prisoner around the same time as Wu Rui and the historian Leo K. Shin believes all of them may have been involved in illegal trade instead of being blown off course by wind.[59] The over 100 Chinese men who were castrated and made into eunuchs by the Vietnamese remained captives in Vietnam when the incident was reported. Both the incidents of the young Chinese man Wu Rui and the more than 100 Chinese men being castrated and used as eunuchs point to possible involvement in trade according to historians John K. Whitmore and Tana Li which was then suppressed by the Vietnamese government instead of them really being blown off course by the wind.[45] China's relations with Vietnam during this period were marked by the punishment of prisoners by castration.[60][61]
Under the order of LĂȘ ThĂĄnh TĂŽng, the official historical text of the LĂȘ dynasty, ÄáșĄi Viá»t sá» kĂœ toĂ n thÆ° (性è¶ćČèšć šæž), was compiled and finished in 1479. The 15-volume book covered the entirety of Vietnamese history at that point, from the Há»ng BĂ ng dynasty to the enthronement of LĂȘ ThĂĄi Tá».[62]
Há»ng Äức's campaigns against Champa and Lan Xang (1471â1480)
[edit]In 1471, LĂȘ ThĂĄnh TĂŽng conquered Champa and captured the Cham capital Vijaya, ending independent Cham rule in the south. The Kingdom of Champa was reduced to a small enclave near Panduranga (modern day Phan RangâThĂĄp ChĂ m) and Kauthara (now Nha Trang) with many Chams fleeing to Cambodia.[63][64] LĂȘ ThĂĄnh TĂŽng created a new province out of former Cham land and allowed ethnic Vietnamese settlers to settle it. The conquest of the Cham kingdoms started a rapid period of expansion by the Vietnamese southwards into this newly conquered land. The government used a system of land settlement called Äá»n Äiá»n (汯ç°).[citation needed]
From 1478 to 1480, LĂȘ ThĂĄnh TĂŽng led an expedition against the kingdoms of Lan Xang and Lanna in today Laos and Northern Thailand.[65] Laotians were overwhelmed, their capital Luang Prabang was captured. Laotians retreated to the jungles, where they waged two-years of guerrilla warfare against the Vietnamese.[65] King of Lan Xang Chakkaphat Phaen Phaeo sought refuge in Lanna.[65] Some of the Vietnamese army had reached the kingdom of Ava.[66] The expedition ended inconclusively, many Vietnamese soldiers died because of the hostile climate and rampant diseases;[67] The Vietnamese forces were unable to suppress the Laotian guerrillas, and then the Laotians were able to recapture their capital.[65] As the Vietnamese withdrew their army through the kingdom of Muang Phuan in December 1479, they annexed and incorporated it into Ninh Protectorate (Tráș„n Ninh) in 1480.[68]
Decline of the Early period
[edit]With the death of LĂȘ ThĂĄnh TĂŽng, the LĂȘ dynasty fell into a swift decline (1497â1527).
Prince LĂȘ TÄng, the eldest of LĂȘ ThĂĄnh TĂŽng's 14 sons, succeeded his father as LĂȘ Hiáșżn TĂŽng (é»æČćź). He was 38 years old at the time of his father's death. He was an affable, meek and mild-mannered person. Due to his short period of rule and that he didn't pass many significant reforms, his reign is considered to be an extension of LĂȘ ThĂĄnh TĂŽng's rule. The new emperor was known to historical annals as LĂȘ Hiáșżn TĂŽng. In early 1499, several high-ranking officials including LĂȘ VÄ©nh and LĂȘ NÄng NhÆ°á»Łng persuaded Hiáșżn TĂŽng to choose an heir in order to maintain the dynasty's and the nation's security and sustainability. Hiáșżn TĂŽng agreed; and although the emperor had two elder sons: LĂȘ TuĂąn and LĂȘ Tuáș„n, LĂȘ Thuáș§n was designed as crown prince due to his deep interest in intellectuality and Neo-Confucianism, which caused Hiáșżn TĂŽng to perceive him as being far superior to his two older brothers.[69] He chose his third son, LĂȘ TĂșc TĂŽng (é»è ćź) to be his successor. In 1504, LĂȘ Hiáșżn TĂŽng died at 44 years old. The 17 year old LĂȘ Thuáș§n inherited the throne. The Confucian annalists portrayed him as a relatively good emperor who released many prisoners, stopping several construction works that posed heavy burden on his subjects, as well as reducing tributes from vassals and holding high-ranking officials in high regard. He was also said to have maintained harmony in the court and the whole country. In the other hand, the annals also recorded a revolt broke in Cao Báș±ng, led by ÄoĂ n Tháșż NĂčng against the government. LĂȘ Thuáș§n sent troops to Cao Báș±ng, defeating and killing ÄoĂ n Tháșż NĂčng along with 500 rebels.[70] However, he fell gravely ill and died just six months after assuming the throne.
LĂȘ Uy MỄc (é»ćšç©) was the second son of Emperor LĂȘ Hiáșżn TĂŽng. In 1505, as older brother of Emperor LĂȘ TĂșc TĂŽng, he succeeded the throne, later known under posthumous name Uy MỄc hoĂ ng Äáșż (ćšç©çćž). LĂȘ Uy MỄc was portrayed by Neo-Confucianist chroniclers as being deeply contrasted to his predecessors LĂȘ ThĂĄnh TĂŽng, LĂȘ Hiáșżn TĂŽng and LĂȘ TĂșc TĂŽng, who closely followed Neo-Confucianist principles in governing the nation.[70] The first thing the new emperor did was to take revenge against those who had barred him from the throne by having them killed. Among his victims were the former emperor's mother â which was considered[71] a shocking display of evil behavior. LĂȘ Uy MỄc was described by a Ming ambassador â as a cruel, sadistic, and depraved person, who wasted the court's money and finances to indulge his whims. Well aware that he was detested by his subjects, LĂȘ Uy MỄc protected himself by hiring a group of elite bodyguards to surround him at all times. Among them was MáșĄc ÄÄng Dung, who became very close to the emperor and eventually rose to the rank of general. Despite his precautions, in 1509 a cousin, whom LĂȘ Uy MỄc had put in prison, escaped and plotted with court insiders to assassinate the emperor. The assassination succeeded and the killer proclaimed himself emperor under the name LĂȘ TÆ°ÆĄng Dá»±c.
LĂȘ TÆ°ÆĄng Dá»±c (é»è„çżŒ), posthumous name TÆ°ÆĄng Dá»±c HoĂ ng Äáșż (è„çżŒçćž), proved to be just as bad a ruler as LĂȘ Uy MỄc. He reigned from 1510 to 1516, all the while spending down the imperial treasury, and doing nothing to improve the country. He was heedless to the reaction that his taxes caused throughout the country. Later in his reign, he spent extravagantly in building many colossal palaces in the imperial capital, ThÄng Long. The most notable of those places was one known to the Vietnamese as Cá»u TrĂčng ÄĂ i (äčéèș, trans. "Nine-Leveled Tower"), designed by the emperor's favoured architect VĆ© NhÆ° TĂŽ. He also spent much time enjoying sexual activities with his concubines, many of whom were former concubines of LĂȘ Hiáșżn TĂŽng and LĂȘ Uy MỄc. According to court chroniclers, he ordered the build of special boats for his nude concubines to row on large artificial lakes.[72] As the result of the emperor's luxurious lifestyle and ignorance of state affairs, the people suffered considerable hardships. Many soldiers committed to build imperial palaces died due to diseases.[72] As the government became increasingly unpopular, many rebellions broke out. The largest of them was that of Tráș§n CáșŁo, a northerner who claimed to be an heir of the House of Tráș§n.[73] His rule ended in 1516 when a group officials and generals led by Trá»nh Duy SáșŁn stormed the palace and killed him.[74][75]
Crisis and revolts
[edit]At 14 years old, nephew of LĂȘ TÆ°ÆĄng Dá»±c, prince LĂȘ Y, was enthroned as the new emperor LĂȘ ChiĂȘu TĂŽng (ruled 1516â1522).[28] Factions within the court vied with one another for control of the government. One powerful and growing faction was led by MáșĄc ÄÄng Dung, a military leader who rose through the ranks.[76] His growing power was resented by the leaders of two noble families in Vietnam: the Nguyá» n, under Nguyá» n HoĂ ng DỄ and the Trá»nh, under Trá»nh Duy ÄáșĄi and Trá»nh Duy SáșŁn. After several years of increasing tension, the Nguyá» n and the Trá»nh left the capital Hanoi (then called ÄĂŽng ÄĂŽ) and fled south, with the Emperor "under their protection".
In 1524, MáșĄc ÄÄng Dung forces captured and executed the leaders of the revolt (Nguyá» n HoĂ ng Du, Trá»nh Duy ÄáșĄi, and Trá»nh Duy SáșŁn). The revolt by the Trá»nh clan and the Nguyá» n clan was defeated for the moment. This was the start of a civil war with MáșĄc ÄÄng Dung and his supporters on one side and the Trá»nh and the Nguyá» n on the other side. Thanh HĂła Province, the ancestral home to the Trá»nh and the Nguyá» n, was the battle ground between the two sides. After several years of warfare, Emperor LĂȘ ChiĂȘu TĂŽng was assassinated in 1522 by MáșĄc ÄÄng Dung's supporters. Not long after, the leaders of the Nguyá» n and the Trá»nh were executed. MáșĄc ÄÄng Dung was now the most powerful man in Vietnam.
Usurpation of MáșĄc ÄÄng Dung
[edit]The degenerated LĂȘ dynasty, which endured under six rulers between 1497 and 1527, in the end was no longer able to maintain control over the northern part of the country, much less the new territories to the south. The weakening of the monarchy created a vacuum that the various noble families of the aristocracy were eager to fill. Soon after LĂȘ ChiĂȘu TĂŽng fled south with the Trá»nh and the Nguyá» n in 1522, MáșĄc ÄÄng Dung proclaimed the Emperor's younger brother, LĂȘ XuĂąn, as the new Emperor under the name LĂȘ Cung HoĂ ng. In reality, the new Emperor had no power. Three years after MáșĄc's forces killed his older brother LĂȘ ChiĂȘu TĂŽng, LĂȘ ChiĂȘu TĂŽng was pressured by MáșĄc ÄÄng Dung to hang himself on 18 June 1527 in BáșŻc Sứ garden. MáșĄc ÄÄng Dung, being a scholar-official who had effectively controlled the LĂȘ for a decade, murdered all the LĂȘ imperial family members then proclaimed himself the new Emperor of Vietnam on 15 June 1527, ending (so he thought) the LĂȘ dynasty (see MáșĄc dynasty for more details).
MáșĄc ÄÄng Dung's seizure of the throne prompted other families of the aristocracy, notably the Nguyá» n and Trá»nh, to rush to the support of the LĂȘ loyalists. With the usurpation of the throne, the civil war broke out anew. Again the Nguyá» n and the Trá»nh gathered an army and fought against MáșĄc ÄÄng Dung, this time under the leadership of Nguyá» n Kim and Trá»nh Kiá»m. The Trá»nh and the Nguyá» n were nominally fighting on behalf of the LĂȘ emperor but in reality, for their own power.
Southern and Northern Dynasties (1533â1597)
[edit]The LĂȘ loyalists under LĂȘ Ninh, a descendant of the Imperial family, escaped to Muang Phuan (today Laos). Marquis of An Thanh Nguyá» n Kim summoned the people who were still loyal to the LĂȘ emperor and formed a new army to begin a revolt against MáșĄc ÄÄng Dung. Subsequently, Nguyá» n Kim returned to ÄáșĄi Viá»t and led the LĂȘ loyalists in a sixty-year-long civil war. In 1536 and 1537, NguyĂȘn HĂČa sent two envoys to Beijing to ask the Jiajing Emperor of the Ming dynasty to send an army to fight against the MáșĄc to restore the LĂȘ dynasty.[77] Many Ming officials like Mao Bowen showed strong support for the LĂȘ loyalists and urged Jiajing Emperor to prepare a military campaign.[78] The Ming Emperor agreed.[79]
In 1527, the VĆ© VÄn clan in HĂ Giang and northern HÆ°ng HĂła rebelled against MáșĄc ÄÄng Dung and set up their own government. Vu Van Uyen and his family were called Báș§u lords. In 1534, after Nguyá» n Kim forces recaptured Thanh HĂła, VĆ© VÄn UyĂȘn allied with LĂȘ loyalists and the Ming army to fight against the MáșĄc dynasty.[80] But MáșĄc ÄÄng Dung himself in 1540 went and surrendered the Ming army, wishing for peace. MáșĄc ÄÄng Dung ceded the northeast Vietnamese coastal to the Ming dynasty in exchange for the promise that the Ming dynasty would never invade Vietnam again.[81] The Chinese now recognized both MáșĄc and LĂȘ legitimacy over ÄáșĄi Viá»t and withdrew their army.[82] Báș§u Lords showed strong support for the LĂȘ dynasty and refused to accept Trá»nh family at the early stage of Trá»nhâNguyá» n War. Later, they cooperated with the Trá»nh. Báș§u Lords lasted for nearly 200 years from 1527 to 1699.
In 1542, LĂȘ army from Muang Phuan recaptured Nghá» An. MáșĄc general DÆ°ÆĄng Cháș„p Nháș„t surrendered.[83] After capturing the region of Thanh HĂła and Nghá» An, the Revival LĂȘ dynasty eventually recaptured three-quarters of their former kingdom. Inasmuch as the Mac dynasty ruled the northern portion of ÄáșĄi Viá»t while the LĂȘ dynasty ruled the remainder of the country, this time became known as the period of Northern and Southern dynasties.
In 1545, Nguyá» n Kim was poisoned by DÆ°ÆĄng Cháș„p Nháș„t, a surrendered general of the MáșĄc dynasty. The power of imperial court was then passed to Nguyá» n Kim's son-in-law Trá»nh Kiá»m who became the founder of the Trá»nh lords. Since then the emperor had only become a figurehead, Trá»nh Kiá»m and his successors were the de facto rulers of the country and continued the war with the MáșĄc. The war had three actual fighting periods: 1533â1537, 1551â1564 and 1584â1592. During the early confrontation period, the LĂȘ dynasty introduced personal firearms like matchlocks into their army and surprised the MáșĄc army.[84][85]
Trá»nh TĂčng succeed his father in 1570, established the Trá»nh lords and launched a large-scale offensive against the MáșĄc army in January 1592.[86] Unable to resist the forces of the LĂȘ loyalists, in December 1592 the MáșĄc dynasty retreated to the north and established a new capital at Cao Báș±ng Province allying with the Ming dynasty of China as a tributary nation against the LĂȘ dynasty.
Restored LĂȘ (1597â1789)
[edit]In 1597, the Ming dynasty recognized the legitimacy of the LĂȘ monarch.[87] However, the Ming recorded that the LĂȘ rulers were very dissatisfied with the Ming Empire because the Chinese also concurrently supported the MáșĄc dynasty. In 1589, Toyotomi Hideyoshi sent envoys to the LĂȘ court in Thanh HoĂĄ, asking the Vietnamese to join Japan's alliance against Ming China and Joseon Korea.[88] Hideyoshi hoped that a three-pronged attack on the Ming dynastyâwith Japan from the north, Vietnam to the south, and other Southeast Asian nations to the southwestâwould weaken the Ming army and allow the attackers to prevail.[88] Although some officials supported the plan, the LĂȘ emperor Quang HÆ°ng and his ministers recognized the overwhelming strength of the Ming empire; the LĂȘ ministers further viewed Japan and other Southeast Asian nations as "barbarians" and formally refused the Japanese lord's invitation.[88][better source needed]
The Ming loyalist Chinese pirate Yang Yandi (DÆ°ÆĄng NgáșĄn Äá»ch)[89] and his fleet sailed to Vietnam to leave the Qing dynasty in March 1682, first appearing off the coast of Tonkin in north Vietnam. According to the Vietnamese account, VĆ© Duy ChĂ æŠæćż, a minister of the Vietnamese LĂȘ dynasty came up with a plan to defeat the Chinese pirates by sending more than 300 beautiful Vietnamese singing girls and prostitutes carrying red handkerchiefs to the Chinese pirate junks on small boats. The Chinese pirates and northern Vietnamese girls had sex but the women then wet the gun barrels of the Chinese pirates ships with their handkerchiefs. They then left in the same boats. The Vietnamese navy attacked the Chinese pirate fleet who were unable to fire back with their wet guns. The Chinese pirate fleet, originally 206 junks, was reduced to 50â80 junks by the time it reached south Vietnam's Quang Nam and the Mekong Delta. The Chinese pirates having sex with north Vietnamese women may also have transmitted a deadly epidemic from China to the Vietnamese which ravaged the Tonkin regime of north Vietnam. French and Chinese sources say a typhoon contributed to the loss of ships along with the disease.[90][91][92][93] The Nguyá» n court allowed Yang (Duong) and his surviving followers to resettle in Äá»ng Nai, which had been newly acquired from the Khmers. Duong's followers named their settlement as "Minh Huong", to recall their allegiance to the Ming dynasty.[94]
Trá»nhâNguyá» n contention
[edit]In 1620, Nguyá» n PhĂșc NguyĂȘn officially refused to send taxes to the court in Hanoi. A formal demand was made to the Nguyá» n to submit to the authority of the court, and it was formally refused. In 1623 Trá»nh TĂčng died and was succeeded by his son Trá»nh TrĂĄng. Trá»nh TrĂĄng made yet another formal demand for submission, and again Nguyá» n PhĂșc NguyĂȘn refused. Finally in 1627 open warfare broke out between the Trá»nh and the Nguyá» n. For four months a large Trá»nh army campaigned against the Nguyá» n army but were unable to defeat them. [citation needed] The result of this war was that Vietnam had effectively been partitioned into northern and southern regions, with the Trá»nh controlling most of the north and the Nguyá» n controlling most of the south; the dividing line was the Gianh River in QuáșŁng BĂŹnh Province. This border was very close to the Seventeenth parallel (in actuality the Báșżn HáșŁi River located just to the south in QuáșŁng Trá» Province), which was imposed as the border between North Vietnam and South Vietnam during the 1954â1975 Partition of Vietnam. [citation needed]
While the Trá»nh ruled over a much more populous territory, the Nguyá» n had several advantages. First, they were on the defensive and as such were more motivated to fight. Second, the Nguyá» n were able to take advantage of their contacts with the Europeans, specifically the Portuguese, to purchase advanced European weapons and hire European military experts in fortifications. Third, the geography was favorable to them, as the flat plains of the North suitable for large organized armies ended at Nguyá» n-controlled territory; the mountains of the central highlands reach almost to the sea.[95]
After the first campaign, the Nguyá» n built two massive fortified lines which stretched a few miles from the sea to the central highlands. The walls were built north of Huáșż near the city of Äá»ng Há»i. The Nguyá» n defended these lines against numerous Trá»nh offensives which lasted till 1672.[95] Tradition holds that the builder of these walls was a Vietnamese general who was hired from the Trá»nh court by the Nguyá» n. Under his direction the walls held repeatedly against multiple Trá»nh assaults, even when they mustered an army of 100,000 men, 500 elephants, and 500 large ships.[96]
In 1633 the Trá»nh tried attacking the Nguyá» n by sea to avoid costly assaults on the great walls. However, the Trá»nh fleet was defeated by the Nguyá» n fleet at the battle of Nhat-Le.[95] Around 1635 the Trá»nh decided to emulate the Nguyá» n and sought military aid from the Europeans. Trá»nh TrĂĄng hired the VOC to make European cannons and ships for his army. In 1642â43, the Trá»nh army attacked the Nguyá» n walls. With the aid of the Dutch cannons, the Trá»nh army broke through the first wall but failed to break through the second. At sea, the Trá»nh, with their Dutch ships Kievit, Nachtegaels and Woekende Book were defeated at sea by the Nguyá» n fleet with their Chinese style galleys.[97][98][99][100][101] Trá»nh TrĂĄng staged yet another offensive in 1648 but at the battle of Truong Duc, the Trá»nh army was again badly beaten by the Nguyá» n.[95] The new LĂȘ emperor died around this time, perhaps as a result of the defeat. This now left the door open for the Nguyá» n to finally go on the offensive.
The Nguyá» n launched their own invasion of northern Vietnam in 1653. The Nguyá» n army went north and defeated the weakened Trá»nh army, capturing QuáșŁng BĂŹnh and HĂ TÄ©nh Province. In the following year, Trá»nh TrĂĄng died as Nguyá» n forces entered Nghá» An Province. Under the leadership of Trá»nh TrĂĄng's successor the capable Trá»nh TáșĄc however, the northern army managed to defeat the Nguyá» n army. The Nguyá» n were also further weakened by a division between their two top generals who refused to cooperate with each other. In 1656 the Nguyá» n army was driven back all the way to their original territories. Trá»nh TáșĄc tried to break the walls of the Nguyá» n in 1661 but this attack, like so many before it, failed.
In 1672, the Trá»nh army made a last effort to conquer the Nguyá» n. The attacking army was under the command of Trá»nh TáșĄc's son, Trá»nh CÄn, while the defending army was under the command of Nguyá» n PhĂșc Táș§n's son Prince Nguyá» n PhĂșc Thuáșn. [citation needed] The attack, like all the previous attacks on the Nguyá» n walls, failed. This time the two sides agreed to a peace. With the Qing dynasty under the Kangxi Emperor serving as mediator, the Trá»nh and the Nguyá» n finally agreed to end the fighting by making the Linh River the border between their lands (1673). Although the Nguyá» n nominally accepted the LĂȘ emperor as the legitimate and sole ruler of Vietnam. However, the reality was that the Nguyá» n ruled the south, and the Trá»nh, the north. This division continued for the next century. The border between the Trá»nh and the Nguyá» n was strongly fortified yet remained peaceful. Despite the de facto partition of the empire, both the ruling families of the two realms claimed to be loyal subjects under the authority of the singular imperial LĂȘ family, and their territories were de jure all under the same empire, ÄáșĄi Viá»t.
TĂąy SÆĄn rebellion
[edit]
The stalemate between the Trá»nh and the Nguyá» n lords that began at the end of the 17th century did not, however, mark the beginning of a period of peace and prosperity. Instead the decades of continual warfare between the two families had left the ruists and peasantry in a weakened state, the victim of taxes levied to support the courts and their military adventures. Having to meet their tax obligations had forced many peasants off the land and facilitated the acquisition of large tracts by a few wealthy landowners, nobles, and scholarâofficials. Because scholarâofficials were exempted from having to pay a land tax, the more land they acquired, the greater was the burden that fell on those peasants who had been able to retain their land. In addition, the peasantry faced new taxes on staple items such as charcoal, salt, silk, and cinnamon, and on commercial activities such as fishing and mining. The disparate condition of the economy led to neglect of the extensive network of irrigation systems as well.[citation needed]
As they fell into disrepair, disastrous flooding and famine resulted, unleashing great numbers of starving and landless people to wander aimlessly about the countryside. The widespread suffering in North Vietnam led to numerous peasant revolts between 1730 and 1770, notable the peasant rebellion of Nguyá» n Hữu Cáș§u from 1748 to 1751. Although the uprisings took place throughout the country, they were essentially local phenomena, breaking out spontaneously from similar local causes. The occasional coordination between and among local movements did not result in any national organization or leadership. Moreover, most of the uprisings were conservative, in that the leaders supported the restoration of the LĂȘ dynasty. They did, however, put forward demands for land reform, more equitable taxes, and rice for all.
Landless peasants accounted for most of the initial support for the various rebellions, but they were often joined later by craftsmen, fishermen, miners, and traders, who had been taxed out of their occupations. Some of these movements enjoyed limited success for a short time, but it was not until 1771 that any of the peasant revolts had a lasting national impact.[citation needed]
Dissatisfaction against two ruling families Trá»nh and Nguyá» n spread throughout the country. In 1771, three brothers Nguyá» n NháșĄc, Nguyá» n Lữ and Nguyá» n Huá» in An KhĂȘ, BĂŹnh Äá»nh with local peasants' support, revolted against the Nguyá» n lord.[102][103][104] In 1773, the TĂąy SÆĄn captured Quy NhÆĄn fort in 1773, gave them financial and manpower support, thus made the rebellion and became widespread. In 1774, Trá»nh army from the north launched an offensive against the Nguyá» n. Unable to fight two-front war, Lord Nguyá» n PhĂșc Thuáș§n lost the control of Cochinchina, fled by ship to the Mekong Delta. Nguyá» n's capital PhĂș XuĂąn was captured by Trá»nh lord. Nguyá» n PhĂșc Thuáș§n later was taken and executed by the TĂąy SÆĄn in 1777.[105] The remnant Nguyen led by Nguyá» n Ănh with help from the French priest Pigneau de Behaine (BĂĄ Äa Lá»c),[106][107][108][109][110] he soon recruited his army by enlisted French, Cambodian troops and weapons, but mostly were defeated by the superior and more numerous TĂąy SÆĄn rebels four times, and Ănh went into exile in Siam.[111] The TĂąy SÆĄn rebellion were not content to simply conquer the southern provinces of the country.
End of the dynasty
[edit]In 1782, Trá»nh SĂąm died and passed the throne to his 5-year-old son Trá»nh CĂĄn instead of his 19-year-old son Trá»nh TĂŽng, who was demoted after his failed coup d'Ă©tat attempt in 1780. Trá»nh SĂąm assigned HoĂ ng Tá» LĂœ (also known as HoĂ ng ÄĂŹnh BáșŁo) as CĂĄn's regent. Trá»nh TĂŽng allied with the Three Prefectures Army (Vietnamese: Tam phủ quĂąn, chữ HĂĄn: äžćșè») to overthrow Trá»nh CĂĄn and kill HoĂ ng Tá» LĂœ. The army then released the emperor's grandson LĂȘ Duy Kỳ (also known as LĂȘ Duy KhiĂȘm) from imprisonment and forced the emperor to appoint him as the next successor. Trá»nh TĂŽng feared that the army's power would grow stronger. He secretly ordered governors of the Four Provinces (Kinh BáșŻc, SÆĄn Nam, HáșŁi DÆ°ÆĄng, SÆĄn TĂąy) to march into the capital and dismiss the Three Prefectures Army. However the plan was discovered by the army and Trá»nh TĂŽng had to cancel it.
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HoĂ ng Tá» LĂœ's subordinate Nguyá» n Hữu Chá»nh, after hearing about Tá» LĂœ's death, took refuge in TĂąy SÆĄn.
In 1786, king of TĂąy SÆĄn Nguyá» n NháșĄc wanted to recover the old territory of Nguyá» n lords captured by the Trá»nh. He ordered Nguyá» n Huá» and Nguyá» n Hữu Chá»nh to undertake the task. NháșĄc warned Huá» not to attack BáșŻc HĂ . However, Chá»nh convinced Huá» to do so, under the slogan "Destroy the Trá»nh and aid the LĂȘ" (Vietnamese: Diá»t Trá»nh phĂč LĂȘ, chữ HĂĄn: æ» éæ¶é») that would help them gain support from BáșŻc HĂ people. Trá»nh army and the Three Prefectures Army were quickly defeated. Trá»nh TĂŽng committed suicide. Emperor CáșŁnh HÆ°ng died of old age shortly after and passed the throne to LĂȘ Duy Kỳ (emperor ChiĂȘu Thá»ng).
Nguyá» n NháșĄc, after having heard of Nguyá» n Huá»'s insubordination, hastily marched to ThÄng Long and ordered all TĂąy SÆĄn troops to withdraw. However they intentionally left Nguyá» n Hữu Chá»nh behind. Chá»nh chased after them and then stayed in his hometown in Nghá» An.
After TĂąy SÆĄn's withdrawal, members of Trá»nh clan, namely Trá»nh Lá» and Trá»nh Bá»ng, along with their supporters marched into ThÄng Long and demanded ChiĂȘu Thá»ng to reinstall Trá»nh lord. ChiĂȘu Thá»ng, whose father was killed by Trá»nh SĂąm, reluctantly agreed and assigned Trá»nh Bá»ng as Prince of Yáșżn ÄĂŽ (Vietnamese: Yáșżn ÄĂŽ vÆ°ÆĄng, chữ HĂĄn: æéœç). Emperor ChiĂȘu Thá»ng then sent a secret order to Nguyá» n Hữu Chá»nh to come and save him. In 1787, Nguyá» n Hữu Chá»nh marched North, defeated Trá»nh Bá»ng and his supporters, ended the 242 years rule of Trá»nh clan.
In late 1787, Nguyá» n Huá», no longer served under Nguyá» n NháșĄc, sent VĆ© VÄn Nháșm to invade BáșŻc HĂ under the pretense of punishing Nguyá» n Hữu Chá»nh for insubordination. Nháșm captured and executed Chá»nh in January 1788, emperor ChiĂȘu Thá»ng fled to the east of Hong River. VĆ© VÄn Nháșm installed LĂȘ Duy Cáșn as Country Supervisor (Vietnamese: GiĂĄm quá»c, chữ HĂĄn: çŁć) without Huá»'s approval. Nguyá» n Huá» accused Nháșm of treason and executed him, took over BáșŻc HĂ .[112]
LĂȘ ChiĂȘu Thá»ng fled to China
[edit]LĂȘ ChiĂȘu Thá»ng sent envoy to the Imperial court of the Qing Empire to ask for aid against the TĂąy SÆĄn. The Qianlong Emperor of the Qing Empire under the pretense of restoring LĂȘ dynasty dispatched a large force of 200,000 soldiers, to invade Northern Vietnam, captured the capital ThÄng Long.[citation needed]
At the beginning of the war, Nguyá» n Huá»'s troops retreated to the South and refused to engage the Qing army. He raised a large army of his own and defeated the invader in the Lunar New year Eve of 1789. ChiĂȘu Thá»ng and the imperial family fled north into China, never to return. The LĂȘ dynasty finally ended after ruling Vietnam for 356 years. He went to Beijing where he was appointed a Chinese mandarin of the fourth rank in the Han Yellow Bordered Banner, while lower ranking loyalists were sent to cultivate government land and join the Green Standard Army in Sichuan and Zhejiang. They adopted Qing clothing and adopt the queue hairstyle, effectively becoming naturalized subjects of the Qing dynasty affording them protection against Vietnamese demands for extradition.[113][114] From this point on, LĂȘ ChiĂȘu Thá»ng failed to receive support from the Qing Empire of China any more.[115] He spent the rest of his life in China, and died in 1793.[115] In 1802, when envoys of the Nguyá» n dynasty visited China, LĂȘ dynasty loyalists requested that the Jiaqing Emperor let them bring LĂȘ ChiĂȘu Thá»ng's remains back to Vietnam and the emperor agreed.[115] The Jiaqing Emperor also freed all the followers of LĂȘ ChiĂȘu Thá»ng who were imprisoned in China to go back to Vietnam.[115] LĂȘ ChiĂȘu Thá»ng's remains are buried in BĂ n TháșĄch village, Thanh HĂła, Vietnam.[115] He was posthumously given the title Máș«n Äáșż (æćž). Modern descendants of the LĂȘ dynasty live in southern Vietnam.[116][117]
Culture, society, and science
[edit]Clothing and customs
[edit]After ending the Fourth Chinese domination of Vietnam, people of ÄáșĄi Viá»t started to rebuild the country. The dress regulation for emperor and the bureaucracy was learned from the previous dynasties of Vietnam and Ming dynasty of China. In later LĂȘ dynasty, cross-collared robe called ĂĄo giao lÄ©nh was popular among civilians.[118][119] An imperial edict was issued by Vietnam in 1474 forbidding Vietnamese from adopting foreign languages, hairstyles and clothes like that of the Laos, Chams or the Ming "Northerners".[120]
Before 1744, people of both ÄĂ ng NgoĂ i (the north) and ÄĂ ng Trong (the south) wore giao lĂŁnh y with thÆ°á»ng (a kind of long skirt). Both male and female had loose long hair. In 1744, Lord Nguyá» n PhĂșc KhoĂĄt of ÄĂ ng Trong (PhĂș XuĂąn) decreed that both men and women at his court wear trousers and a gown with buttons down the front. Then, the Nguyá» n Lords introduced ĂĄo ngĆ© thĂąn. The members of the ÄĂ ng Trong court (southern court) were thus distinguished from the courtiers of the Trá»nh Lords in ÄĂ ng NgoĂ i (ÄĂŽng Kinh), who wore ĂĄo giao lÄ©nh with long skirts. The partition between two families over the country too long so caused the some major differences in Vietnamese dialect and culture between Northern and Southern Vietnamese.[citation needed]
Vietnamese people in 1645 through a Japanese painting.
A Vietnamese lady in Northern Vietnam, 1600s painting.
Southern Vietnamese
The Vietnamese hunters (Hmong ethnic) in LĂȘ dynasty
ÄáșĄi Viá»t delegates under LĂȘ dynasty to Qing China in 1750s (source:Ten Thousand Nations Coming to Pay Tribute).
North Vietnamese (left) and South Vietnamese (right) under LĂȘ dynasty in 17th century.
Confucian class and chess playing house in Tonkin, c. 18th century.
Two women and a child in Hanoi, c. 18th century.
Nguyen Quy Kinh (1693â1766), imperial tutor to the crown prince.
Commoners and mandarins of the Revival LĂȘ dynasty.
Paintings of activities of Vietnamese people in the Revival LĂȘ dynasty.
Court dress during the late LĂȘ dynasty
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Introduction of Christianity
[edit]European missionaries had occasionally visited Vietnam for short periods of time, with little impact, beginning in the early sixteenth century. KhĂąm Äá»nh Viá»t sá» ThĂŽng giĂĄm cÆ°ÆĄng mỄc recorded the first Christian missionary's name InĂĄcio in the first year of NguyĂȘn HoĂ Emperor (1533) in Nam Äá»nh.[121] From 1580 to 1586, two Portuguese and French missionaries Luis de Fonseca and GrĂ©goire de la Motte worked in QuáșŁng Nam and Quy NhÆĄn region under lord Nguyá» n HoĂ ng. After the LĂȘâMáșĄc War ended and peace was restored in 1593, more missionaries from Spain, Portugal France, Italy and Poland came to Vietnam to spread Christianity. The best known of the early missionaries was Alexandre de Rhodes, a French Jesuit who was sent to Hanoi in 1627, where he quickly learned the language and began preaching in Vietnamese. Initially, Rhodes was well received by the Trinh court, and he reportedly baptized more than 6,000 converts; however, his success probably led to his expulsion in 1630. He is credited with perfecting a romanized system of writing the Vietnamese language (chữ Quá»c ngữ) first developed by Francisco de Pina, which was probably developed as the joint effort of several missionaries, including Rhodes. He wrote the first catechism in Vietnamese and published a Vietnamese-Latin-Portuguese dictionary; these works were the first books printed in chữ Quá»c ngữ. Chữ Quá»c ngữ was used initially only by missionaries; chữ HĂĄn or chữ NĂŽm continued to be used by the court and the bureaucracy.
The French later supported the use of chữ Quá»c ngữ, which, because of its simplicity, led to a high degree of literacy and a flourishing of Vietnamese literature. After being expelled from Vietnam, Rhodes spent the next thirty years seeking support for his missionary work from the Vatican and the French Roman Catholic hierarchy as well as making several more trips to Vietnam. However, since 1910, Latinized chữ Quá»c ngữ was adopted by the French governor as the main writing system of Vietnam,[122] while chữ HĂĄn and chữ NĂŽm fell into decline. Vietnamese Christianity developed and became stronger before it was cracked down on by Emperor Minh MáșĄng of the Nguyá» n dynasty in the 1820s.
Science and Philosophy
[edit]The LĂȘ period was the continuously flourishing era of Vietnamese scientific thought and Confucianism scholarship. Nguyá» n TrĂŁi was a 15th-century LĂȘ official, author of geography book DÆ° Äá»a chĂ, also was a Neo-Confucianist scholar. LĂȘ QuĂœ ÄĂŽn was a poet, encyclopedist, and government official, author of the geography book Phủ biĂȘn táșĄp lỄc. HáșŁi ThÆ°á»Łng LĂŁn Ăng was a famous Vietnamese doctor and pharmacist with his full collection 28-volumes HáșŁi ThÆ°á»Łng y tĂŽng tĂąm lÄ©nh about traditional Vietnamese medicine. Matchlock firearms technology also spread from Mughal Empire to ÄáșĄi Viá»t in 1516, and was adopted by the LĂȘ army by the 1530s.
Literature and arts
[edit]Written Chinese was the predominant writing language in Vietnam throughout the LĂȘ dynasty, although written vernacular Vietnamese using chữ NĂŽm became increasingly popular in the 17th century.[4]:â207â To adapt Chinese writings to fit the Vietnamese language, Chinese ideograms were modified to chữ NĂŽm.[123] During the LĂȘ dynasty, various forms of Vietnamese literature and art flourished, including poetry, painting, novels, hĂĄt tuá»ng, chĂšo, cáșŁi lÆ°ÆĄng, and ca trĂč. Many writers wrote in chữ HĂĄn or chữ NĂŽm; for example, Nguyá» n Du's The Tale of Kiá»u, ÄoĂ n Thá» Äiá»m's Chinh phỄ ngĂąm, and Nguyá» n Gia Thiá»u's Cung oĂĄn ngĂąm khĂșc. Even LĂȘ ThĂĄnh TĂŽng wrote in both chữ HĂĄn and chữ NĂŽm.[123]
The art forms of that time prospered and produced items of great artistic value, despite the upheavals and wars. Woodcarving was especially highly developed and produced items that were used for daily use or worship. Many of these items can be seen in the National Museum in Hanoi.
Vietnamese shamanism worshipping ritual at the temple in 1684.
Woodcut paintings "ThĂĄnh Cung váșĄn tuáșż" ("Long live his Imperial Majesty") from the 18th-century Nghá» An.
Ceramic stoneware vase, fifteenth century
Statue of Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva, crimson and gilded wood, Revival LĂȘ dynasty, autumn of BĂnh ThĂąn year (1656), from BĂșt ThĂĄp Temple in BáșŻc Ninh Province.
Wooden art pieces of the seventeenth century.
NghĂȘ (mythological beast) figurines, crimson and gilded wood, eighteenth century.
NghĂȘ decorate in seventeenth century.
Dragon of the Later LĂȘ dynasty.
Buddhanandi statue of the LĂȘ dynasty.
Ceramic Lion bush, sixteenth century.
Imperial dish of the LĂȘ dynasty.
Horse figure, 1720.
The Lacquer wood painting at Vua Rá»c temple, dedicated to general ÄoĂ n ThÆ°á»Łng CĂŽng of LĂœ dynasty in Kien Xuong district, ThĂĄi BĂŹnh Province, 18th century AD.
17th-century ÄĂŽng Há» woodcut painting depicts CĂĄ chĂ©p (Carp) displays in National Museum of Fine Arts
17th-century ÄĂŽng Há» woodcut painting depicts "Social commentary: ÄĂĄnh ghen (Jealousy fighting)" in National Museum of Fine Arts
17th-century HĂ ng Trá»ng woodcut painting depicts Five Tigers "NgĆ© Há»" displays in National Museum of Fine Arts
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Education and imperial examination system
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Portrait of Tiáșżn sÄ©(éČ棫) parade when successfully passing the examination.
Parade of Tiáșżn sÄ© and soldiers in LĂȘ dynasty, 18th century painting.
In late 1426, LĂȘ Lợi held a small Confucian examination in ÄĂŽng Kinh, graduated 30 tiáșżn sÄ©. From 1431, the court annually held Provincial and metropolitan exams were organized in three sessions. The first session took place in every province, consisted of three questions on the examinee's interpretation of the Four Books, and four on the Classics corpus. Everyone who passed the first session were called Sinh Äá» and HÆ°ÆĄng cá»ng. The second session took place in the capital one year later, and consisted of a discursive essay, a based Tang poetry, five critical judgments, and one in the style of an edict, an announcement and a memorial. Three days after that, the third session was held by the emperor, consisting of five essays on the Classics, historiography, and contemporary affairs.
From 1486, every mandarin candidates must participated both first and second session to approve the chain. The Le's examination system reflected the Ming's imperial examination.[124]
During the period from 1426 to 1527, the LĂȘ dynasty held 26 Imperial examinations in the capital, graduated 989 tiáșżn sÄ© and 20 tráșĄng nguyĂȘn.[125] By the 1750s, Neo-Confucianism were declining, the imperial examinations began having surplus graduates, downgrading quality of jinshi and mandarin, corruptions, the court prefer children of noble families to be mandarins that take check, thus made the downfall of Confucian examination system in Vietnam in the late 18th century until the established of Nguyá» n dynasty.[126]
Scholars and administrators who graduated from the imperial examination system during the LĂȘ dynasty include Nguyá» n Bá»nh KhiĂȘm, Nguyá» n Thá» Duá», PhĂčng KháșŻc Khoan, LĂȘ QuĂœ ÄĂŽn, LÆ°ÆĄng Tháșż Vinh, and Nguyá» n ÄÄng ÄáșĄo.
Foreign relations
[edit]
China
[edit]In 1428, LĂȘ Lợi established a tributary relationship with the Ming dynasty in exchange for the recognition and formal protection of his kingdom. Xuande Emperor gave LĂȘ Lợi the title "An Nam Quá»c VÆ°ÆĄng" (King of Annam) and recognized internal Vietnamese independence and sovereignty (which would last until 1526).[1][2][3][23] Also part of the tributary relationship was the responsibility of the Ming to provide external military support to the LĂȘ state.[3] Ming support for the LĂȘ against the MáșĄc uprising arrived in 1537.[3] After the 1540 surrender of the MáșĄc to the Ming, the Ming court ceremonially revoked the MáșĄc dynasty's status as an independent kingdom and reclassified it as a dutongshisi: a category only slightly higher than a chieftaincy.[3] After 1540, the Ming received tribute from both the LĂȘ dynasty and the MáșĄc, a state of affairs that continued through the Qing dynasty.[3][23] From 1647, the Southern Ming reclassified Annam as an independent kingdom, giving LĂȘ Duy Kỳ the title "An Nam Quá»c VÆ°ÆĄng" (ćźććœç) again.[127] In 1667, the Kangxi Emperor of the Qing empire gave the title An Nam Quá»c VÆ°ÆĄng to LĂȘ Duy VĆ© through a successful Vietnamese diplomatic mission.[128]
Vietnamese delegation in Beijing street (Source: "ćčłćźè„żćçźäżç€ŒćŸć·".)
LÆ°ÆĄng Tháșż Vinh, Vietnamese scholar and mathematician served in LĂȘ ThĂĄnh TĂŽng's government from 1463 to 1478.
Nguyá» n QuĂĄn Nho (1638â1708), Vietnamese ambassador to Qing China (1674â1681), served as prime minister (1691â1707) under lord Trá»nh CÄn.
Portrait of PhĂčng KháșŻc Khoan, the mandarin who led the diplomatic visit to Ming China in 1597.
Europe
[edit]Vietnamese historiography notes that contact between Vietnam and the Holy See or Vatican was established during the reign of emperor LĂȘ Tháșż TĂŽng (1572â1599) through a diplomacy letter in Classical Chinese that is held in a Vatican library in the modern day.[129]
The seventeenth century was also a period in which European missionaries and merchants became a serious factor in Vietnamese court life and politics. Although both had arrived by the early sixteenth century, neither foreign merchants nor missionaries had much impact on Vietnam before the seventeenth century. The Portuguese, Dutch, English, and French had all established trading posts in Phá» Hiá»n by 1680. Fighting among the Europeans and opposition by the Vietnamese made the enterprises unprofitable, however, and all of the foreign trading posts were closed by 1800.[citation needed]
Economic development
[edit]Before 1527, the Imperial court restricted people from foreign trade, mainly focused on agriculture and the local market trade. The period from 1505 to 1527 was politically unstable which disrupted the economy. There were a series of severe famines in HáșŁi DÆ°ÆĄng prefecture and Kinh BáșŻc prefecture (BáșŻc Ninh, BáșŻc Giang) that occurred in 1517 to 1521 during the reign of LĂȘ TÆ°ÆĄng Dá»±c.[130] The 16th century political crisis caused severe damage to Vietnam's agriculture and conscription was required by incessant military campaigns; this was compounded by natural disasters, largely contributed to regular crop failures. The number of landless peasants grew quickly, causing a disproportionate surplus of unemployed labourers in Northern Vietnam. After MáșĄc ÄÄng Dung gained power in 1527, he sought to restore the economy by encouraging these unemployed peasants into the city and factories, pursuing massive handicraft and industrial manufacture as well as sea trading. This caused a shift in the economy from one mainly on farming to sea trading from the Red River Delta on the Eastern coast.[131]
Vietnamese merchants and sailors formed together and built medium-size ships in Hai Mon port (now Hai Phong) and quickly gained dominance in the South China sea trade route, which mostly sailed from Japan to Malacca to sell silk and ceramics. Some of them eventually reached Egypt and Greece under the Ottoman's rule around the 1570s.[131] After the recapture of ÄĂŽng Kinh in 1592, the LĂȘ-Trá»nh court acknowledged the benefits of oversea trading, and continued to encourage handicraft and industrial manufacture and opened several ports such as Hoi An and ÄĂŽng Kinh to foreign merchants. About 80% of the population were farmers and peasants; they worked on lands mostly held by Äá»a chủ (landlords). The economy was devastated in some regions of the country due to two long civil wars, however, in most parts of the country which were unaffected, peace were maintained for a long time, which saw a rise of urbanization and a pre-capitalism society in Vietnam around the late 16th to 18th century.[131]
In contrast to the overpopulation of the Red River Delta, the Thuan Hoa and Quang Nam region were not as dense. Vietnamese people had begun settling in the conquered Cham region at least since the 15th century. After Nguyá» n HoĂ ng was appointed as governor of the southern provinces in 1572, millions migrated south, resulting in new cities and harbors along the coastline. For centuries the Nguyá» n dynasty's economy mostly depended on handicraft and industrial manufacture but also international trade.[132] Until the later 18th century, due to an epidemic, severe flooding in the Red River Delta, the immense corruption of the government and the rise of the TĂąy SÆĄn rebellion in Southern Vietnam that later spread to the entire country, devastated most of the economy and international trading, it played an important role in the collapse of the dynasty.
ÄĂŽng Kinh and urban life
[edit]ÄĂŽng Kinh (present-day Hanoi) has been the capital of Vietnam since the 11th century. During the Later LĂȘ dynasty it was divided into 13 districts and 239 wards (with 36 main business-trading wards) and communes.[133][134] Since the mid-16th century, ÄĂŽng Kinh became the silk and ceramic manufacturing center of Southeast Asia. Vietnamese merchants exported to the Ottoman Empire and Safavid Empire, these exports include Tonkinese octagonal bottles with underglaze-cobalt decoration or dishes with peony sprays painted in underglaze-cobalt were considered as good as Chinese products.[131] Vietnamese ceramics from BĂĄt TrĂ ng villages produced famous high-quality pottery and dishes. With TomĂ© Pires noting in 1515 "They [The Vietnamese] have porcelain and pottery-some of them great value-and these go from there to China to be sold.Chinese and Japanese traders came to ÄĂŽng Kinh to buy both high quality silk and raw silk. Besides silk textiles that were made in villages, the majority of them were produced in state-owned factories in ÄĂŽng Kinh, this was produced for the imperial family, noblemen and foreigners.[131]
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In 1594, the Imperial court allowed a Western presence in the capital, and encouraged Dutch, Spanish and the British to open trading ports. In 1616, the British established a factory in ÄĂŽng Kinh, but their business ended in failure due to the pressures from the LĂȘ court, and finally withdrew in 1720.[135] During the 17th and 18th century, Westerners commonly used the name Tonkin (from ÄĂŽng Kinh) to refer to northern Vietnam, then ruled by the Trá»nh lords (while Cochinchina was used to refer to Southern Vietnam, then ruled by the Nguyá» n lords, and Annam, from the name of the former Chinese province was used to refer to Vietnam as a whole). Tonkin had been a major industrial and trading center in Asia until the 1730s.[136]
The prosperity during the Le dynasty was described through the urbanization in Tonkin through Western narratives: "...Cachao (ÄĂŽng Kinh) probably had 200,000 houses. The city size was some larger than some of the largest cities in Europe but similar in size to other major Asian cities. It lies along the Red river...there are 36 stone-paved major streets, many foreigners such as Chinese, Japanese, English held their business companies, factories and stores here...the Emperor has three small but magnificent palaces, mostly built by red wood and terracotta bricks, surrounded by 15-feet height wall, and its main gate never opens expect when the Emperor wants to go outside. The Trinh lord and his families live in the 30-meter high NgĆ© Long castle, near TáșĄ Vá»ng lake, which can be seen at its highest from the Red river..."[137][failed verification]
In 1637, the Dutch successfully established commercial and diplomatic relations with Tonkin and maintained their trading station in ÄĂŽng Kinh until 1700. The lucrative Dutch âVietnamese-silk-for-Japanese-silver tradeâ later also attracted the English and the French to Tonkin in 1672 and early 1682 respectively. The British imported Vietnamese silk around the 1670s, but not regularly. The city had a Chinatown, as well as factories owned by the Dutch and English companies along the Red river.[138]
However, by the last quarter of the 17th century, Tonkin was no longer a profitable trading place. Vietnamese silk no longer reaped a handsome profit in Japan and Vietnamese ceramics proved unmarketable in the insular Southeast Asian markets. In Tonkin, trading conditions also deteriorated rapidly. Subsequently, natural disasters ravaged the economy of the country and a wave of successive famines discouraged local craftsmen from producing goods for export. Worse still, after the protracted civil war with the southern Vietnamese kingdom of Quinam (or ÄĂ ng Trong) that ended in 1672, the Tonkinese rulers seemed to be more indifferent towards foreign trade as they were no longer in urgent need of a supply of weapons from the Westerners. Bearing in mind their long-term strategy, especially the prospect of opening up trading relations with China, the Dutch still wanted to maintain their Tonkinese trade despite its current unprofitable state, perceiving that it would be extremely difficult to re-establish the relationship with Tonkin once they left the country.[131] Despite Dutch persistence, the relationship between the VOC and Tonkin deteriorated rapidly during the last two decades of the 17th century, especially after ChĂșa (Lord) Trá»nh CÄn (r. 1682â1709) succeeded to the throne.[131]
Há»i An
[edit]
The area of the QuáșŁng Nam river was originally part of Champa but was annexed by ÄáșĄi Viá»t by Emperor ThĂĄnh TĂŽng. It was opened for foreign merchants for trade and settlement. In 1535 Portuguese explorer and sea captain AntĂłnio de Faria, coming from Da Nang, tried to establish a major trading centre at the port village of Faifo.[139] Há»i An was founded as a trading port by the Nguyá» n Lord Nguyá» n HoĂ ng in 1570. The Nguyá» n lords were far more interested in commercial activity than the Trá»nh lords who ruled the north. As a result, Há»i An flourished as a trading port and became the most important trade port on the South China Sea. Captain William Adams, the English sailor and confidant of Tokugawa Ieyasu, is known to have made one trading mission to Há»i An in 1617 on a Red Seal Ship.[140] The early Portuguese Jesuits also had one of their two residences at Há»i An.[141] In 1640, Nguyá» n lord Nguyá» n PhĂșc Lan ordered to close all Dutch stores and factories in Há»i An, ban the Dutch in trading within Cochinchina as he suspected the VOC was allying with the Trá»nh lords to the north.[142] In the 17th century, Polish Jesuit missionary Wojciech MÄciĆski was believed to visited Há»i An.[143]
In the 18th century, Há»i An was considered by Chinese and Japanese merchants to be the best destination for trading in all of Southeast Asia, even Asia.[citation needed] Trading activities and handicraft manufacturing had been shifted from Tonkin to Há»i An.[131] The city also rose to prominence as a powerful and exclusive trade conduit between Europe, China, India, and Japan, especially for the ceramic industry. Shipwreck discoveries have shown that Vietnamese and Asian ceramics were transported from Há»i An to as far as Sinai, Egypt.[144]
Há»i An's importance waned sharply at the end of the 18th century because of the collapse of Nguyá» n rule (due to the TĂąy SÆĄn Rebellion). [citation needed] Then, with the triumph of Emperor Gia Long, he repaid the French for their aid by giving them exclusive trade rights to the nearby port town of ÄĂ Náș”ng. ÄĂ Náș”ng became the new centre of trade (and later French influence) in central Vietnam while Há»i An became a forgotten backwater. Local historians also say that Há»i An lost its status as a desirable trade port due to silting up of the river mouth. The result was that Há»i An remained almost untouched by the changes to Vietnam over the next 200 years.
Gia Äá»nh
[edit]
Beginning in the early 17th century, colonization of the area by Vietnamese settlers gradually isolated the Khmer of the Mekong Delta from their brethren in Cambodia proper and resulted in their becoming a minority in the delta.[citation needed] In 1623, King Chey Chettha II of Cambodia (1618â28) allowed Vietnamese refugees fleeing the Trá»nhâNguyá» n civil war in Vietnam to settle in the area of Prey Nokor and to set up a customs house there.[145] Increasing waves of Vietnamese settlers, which the Cambodian kingdom could not impede because it was weakened by war with Thailand, slowly Vietnamized the area. In time, Prey Nokor became known as Saigon. Prey Nokor was the most important commercial seaport to the Khmers.[citation needed] The loss of the city and the rest of the Mekong Delta cut off Cambodia's access to the South China Sea. Subsequently, the only remaining Khmers' sea access was the south-westerly Gulf of Thailand (that is Kampong Saom and Kep).
In 1698, Nguyá» n Hữu CáșŁnh, a Vietnamese noble and explorer, was sent by the Nguyá» n rulers of Huáșż by ship[146] to establish Vietnamese administrative institutions in the area, thus detaching the area from Cambodia, which was not strong enough to intervene. He is often credited with the expansion of Saigon into a significant settlement of Kinh and Hoa people. A large Vauban citadel called Gia Äá»nh was built[147] by Victor Olivier de Puymanel, one of the Nguyá» n Ănh's French mercenaries. The citadel was later destroyed by the French following the Battle of Kỳ HĂČa (see Citadel of Saigon).[citation needed] Initially called Gia Dinh, the Vietnamese city became Saigon in the 18th century. At the time, the population of Gia Äá»nh was around 200,000 people with 35,000 households.[148]
List of emperors
[edit]Emperors of the Initial Period (LĂȘ SÆĄ) from 1428 to 1527
| Temple name | Posthumous name | Personal name | Lineage | Reign | Era name | Tomb | Events | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 |
ThĂĄi Tá» (ć€Șç„) | Thá»ng ThiĂȘn KháșŁi Váșn ThĂĄnh Äức Tháș§n CĂŽng Duá» VÄn Anh VĆ© Khoan Minh DĆ©ng TrĂ HoĂ ng NghÄ©a ChĂ Minh ÄáșĄi Hiáșżu Cao HoĂ ng Äáșż (由怩ćéèćŸ·ç„ćçżæè±æŠćŻŹæćæșćŒçŸ©èłæ性ćé«çćž) | LĂȘ Lợi (é»ć©) | Son of LĂȘ KhoĂĄng, Head of Lam SÆĄn Circuit. | 1429â1433 | Thuáșn ThiĂȘn (é 怩) | VÄ©nh LÄng Mausoleum, Lam Kinh | Founder of the Later LĂȘ dynasty. Rebelled against Ming rule in 1418. Enthroned as Emperor of ÄáșĄi Viá»t in 1428. Re-conquered Cao Báș±ng, ThĂĄi NguyĂȘn and Lai ChĂąu from local chieftains. |
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ThĂĄi TĂŽng (ć€Șćź) | Káșż ThiĂȘn Thá» ÄáșĄo Hiá»n Äức ThĂĄnh CĂŽng KhĂąm Minh VÄn TÆ° Anh Duá» Triáșżt ChiĂȘu Hiáșżn Kiáșżn Trung VÄn HoĂ ng Äáșż (çčŒć€©é«ééĄŻćŸ·ćæŹœæææè±çżä»ćČææČć»șäžæçćž) | LĂȘ NguyĂȘn Long (é»ć éŸ) | Son of Emperor ThĂĄi Tá» | 1433â42 (2) | Thiá»u BĂŹnh (çŽčćčł 1434 â 1439), ÄáșĄi BáșŁo (性毶 1440 â 1442) | Há»±u LÄng, Lam Kinh | Campaigns against Lan Xang (1437â1441). Died mysteriously while visiting the Lychee garden (Lá» Chi ViĂȘn) of Nguyá» n TrĂŁi with TrĂŁi's mistress Nguyá» n Thá» Lá», resulting in Nguyá» n TrĂŁi's accusation and death (Mystery of Lá» Chi ViĂȘn). |
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NhĂąn TĂŽng (ä»ćź) | KhĂąm VÄn NhĂąn Hiáșżu TuyĂȘn Minh ThĂŽng Duá» TuyĂȘn HoĂ ng Äáșż (æŹœæä»ć柣æè°çżćźŁçćž) | LĂȘ Bang CÆĄ (é»éŠćș) | Son of Emperor ThĂĄi TĂŽng | 1442â1459 (3) | ThĂĄi HĂČa (ć€Șć 1443 â 1453), DiĂȘn Ninh (滶毧 1454 â 1459) | MỄc LÄng | Empress TuyĂȘn Từ ruled as regent and was de facto ruler from 1444 to 1454. War with Champa in 1446. Both the Empress Regent and NhĂąn TĂŽng were murdered by Duke LĂȘ Nghi DĂąn. |
| LĂȘ Nghi DĂąn (é»ćźæ°) | ThiĂȘn HÆ°ng Äáșż (怩èćž) | Son of Emperor ThĂĄi TĂŽng | 1459â1460 | ThiĂȘn HÆ°ng (怩è 1459â1460) | Deposed and killed by the ministers. | |||
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ThĂĄnh TĂŽng (èćź) | SĂčng ThiĂȘn QuáșŁng Váșn Cao Minh Quang ChĂnh ChĂ Äức ÄáșĄi CĂŽng ThĂĄnh VÄn Tháș§n VĆ© ÄáșĄt Hiáșżu Thuáș§n HoĂ ng Äáșż (ćŽć€©ć»Łéé«æć æŁèłćŸ·ć€§ćèæç„æŠéćæ·łçćž) | LĂȘ TÆ° ThĂ nh (é»æèȘ ) | Son of Emperor ThĂĄi TĂŽng | 1460â97 (4) | Quang Thuáșn (ć é 1460â1469), Há»ng Äức (æŽȘćŸ· 1470â1497) | ChiĂȘu LÄng | Conquered Champa and captured its capital Vijaya (Champa) in 1471. Victorious wars with Muang Phuan and Lan Xang (1478-1480) . Major administrative, education, economic and legal reforms. Há»ng Äức era was viewed as the apex of the House of LĂȘ. |
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Hiáșżn TĂŽng (æČćź) | Thá» ThiĂȘn NgÆ°ng ÄáșĄo Máșu Äức ChĂ NhĂąn ChiĂȘu VÄn Thiá»u VĆ© TuyĂȘn Triáșżt KhĂąm ThĂ nh ChÆ°ÆĄng Hiáșżu Duá» HoĂ ng Äáșż (é«ć€©ćéæćŸ·èłä»ææçŽčæŠćźŁćČæŹœèćœ°ćçżçćž) | LĂȘ Tranh | Son of Emperor ThĂĄnh TĂŽng | 1497â1504 (5) | CáșŁnh Thá»ng (æŻç”±) | DỄ LÄng | Maintained the works of the Há»ng Äức era |
| TĂșc TĂŽng (è ćź) | ChiĂȘu NghÄ©a Hiá»n NhĂąn Ăn Cung UyĂȘn Máș·c Hiáșżu DoĂŁn Cung KhĂąm HoĂ ng Äáșż (æçŸ©éĄŻä»æș«ææ·”é»æćć ææŹœçćž) | LĂȘ Thuáș§n (é»ă”ź) | Son of Emperor Hiáșżn TĂŽng | 1504â1505 (6) | Tá»± HoĂ ng (ćŁç) | KĂnh LÄng | Reigned for six months (July 1504 - January 1505) before dying of illness | |
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LĂȘ Uy MỄc | Máș«n Lá» cĂŽng (æćČć Ź) | LĂȘ Tuáș„n (é»æżŹ) | Son of Emperor Hiáșżn TĂŽng | 1504â1509 (7) | Äoan KhĂĄnh (ç«Żæ ¶) | An LÄng | Rule is deeply unpopular. Labelled by the Ming dynasty as the Evil king/Quá»· vÆ°ÆĄng (éŹŒç) |
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LĂȘ TÆ°ÆĄng Dá»±c | Linh áșšn vÆ°ÆĄng (éé±ç) | LĂȘ Oanh (é»ç ) | Son of Prince LĂȘ TĂąn of Emperor ThĂĄnh TĂŽng | 1509â1516 (8) | Há»ng Thuáșn (æŽȘé ) | NguyĂȘn LÄng | Political and education reforms. Late rule marred by various rebellions (Tráș§n TuĂąn, 1511; Tráș§n CáșŁo, 1516) and political crises. Assassinated by general Trá»nh Duy SáșŁn. |
| LĂȘ Quang Trá» LĂȘ BáșŁng LĂȘ Do |
Descendants of LĂȘ ThĂĄi TĂŽng | 1516 1518-1519 |
LĂȘ Quang Trá» was installed amidst a political dispute, he kept the throne for only three days in May 1516 and was killed by general Trá»nh Duy ÄáșĄi. From September 1518 to March 1519, LĂȘ BáșŁng was installed and killed by the warlord Trá»nh Tuy. LĂȘ Do was installed by Trá»nh Tuy, he was killed by ChiĂȘu TĂŽng-Máș·c ÄÄng Dung forces in July 1519. | |||||
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ChiĂȘu TĂŽng (æćź) | Tháș§n HoĂ ng Äáșż (ç„çćž) | LĂȘ Y (é»æ€ ) | Son of LĂȘ SĂčng, brother of Emperor TÆ°ÆĄng Dá»±c | 1517â1522 (9) | Quang Thiá»u (ć çŽč) | VÄ©nh HÆ°ng LÄng | Rule plagued by civil war. Murdered by MáșĄc ÄÄng Dung in 1525 |
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Cung HoĂ ng (æç) | Cung HoĂ ng Äáșż (æçćž) | LĂȘ XuĂąn (é»æ€ż) | Son of LĂȘ SĂčng, brother of Emperor TÆ°ÆĄng Dá»±c | 1522â1527 (10) | Thá»ng NguyĂȘn (ç”±ć ) | Hoa DÆ°ÆĄng lÄng | Propped up by MáșĄc ÄÄng Dung, forced to hang himself. |
Emperors of the Restored Period (LĂȘ Trung HÆ°ng) from 1533 to 1789
| Temple name | Posthumous name | Personal name | Lineage | Reign | Era name | Tomb | Events | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
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Trang TĂŽng (èćź) | DỄ HoĂ ng Äáșż (èŁçćž) | LĂȘ Ninh (é»ćŻ§) | Son of Emperor ChiĂȘu TĂŽng | 1533â1548 (11) | NguyĂȘn HĂČa (ć ć) | CáșŁnh lÄng | Escaped from house arrest to Laos in 1527. In 1533, LĂȘ loyalists led by Nguyá» n Kim installed LĂȘ Ninh as Emperor in-exile. Jiajing Emperor of Ming dynasty sent 110,000 soldiers to help the LĂȘ family restore the throne in 1536 but MáșĄc ÄÄng Dung made a pact with the Ming in 1540, beginning the LĂȘ-MáșĄc war. ChiĂȘu TĂŽng ruled from his court in VáșĄn LáșĄi, Thanh HĂła. |
| Trung TĂŽng (äžćź) | VĆ© HoĂ ng Äáșż (æŠçćž) | LĂȘ HuyĂȘn (é»æ) | Son of Emperor Trang TĂŽng | 1548â1556 (12) | Thuáșn BĂŹnh (éĄșćčł) | DiĂȘn lÄng | VáșĄn LáșĄi court with Trá»nh Kiá»m as de facto ruler. LĂȘ army recaptured Thuáșn HĂła and QuáșŁng Nam from MáșĄc in 1553. Trung TĂŽng died without an heir. | |
| Anh TĂŽng (è±ćź) | Tuáș„n HoĂ ng Äáșż (ćł»çćž) | LĂȘ Duy Bang (é»ç¶éŠ) | Descendant of LĂȘ Trừ, the second brother of LĂȘ Lợi | 1556â1573 (13) | ThiĂȘn Há»±u (ć€©ç„ 1557), ChĂnh Trá» (æŁæČ» 1558 â 1571), Há»ng PhĂșc (æŽȘçŠ 1572) | Bá» Vá» lÄng | VáșĄn LáșĄi court. Nguyá» n clan led by Nguyá» n HoĂ ng granted their fiefs in Thuáșn HĂła and QuáșŁng Nam. War of succession between Trá»nh Kiá»m's son Trá»nh TĂčng and Trá»nh Cá»i. Anh TĂŽng plotted against the Trá»nh and was killed by Trá»nh TĂčng. | |
| Tháșż TĂŽng (äžćź) | TĂch Thuáș§n CÆ°ÆĄng ChĂnh DĆ©ng QuáșŁ Nghá» HoĂ ng Äáșż (ç©çŽćæŁćææŻ çćž) | LĂȘ Duy ÄĂ m (é»ç¶æœ) | Son Emperor Anh TĂŽng | 1573â99 (14) | Gia ThĂĄi (ćæł° 1573 â 1577), Quang HÆ°ng (ć è 1578 â 1599) | Hoa NháșĄc lÄng | Installed by Trá»nh TĂčng when he was 5 years old. Recaptured ÄĂŽng Kinh from the MáșĄc dynasty in 1592. Trá»nh TĂčng was de facto ruler. | |
| KĂnh TĂŽng (æŹćź) | Hiá»n NhĂąn DỄ KhĂĄnh Tuy PhĂșc Huá» HoĂ ng Äáșż (æŸä»èŁćș组çŠæ çćž),[149] GiáșŁn Huy HoĂ ng Äáșż (ç°ĄèŒçćž) | LĂȘ Duy TĂąn (é»ç¶æ°) | Son of Emperor Tháșż TĂŽng | 1599â1619 (15) | Tháșn Äức (æ ćŸ· 1600 â 1601), Hoáș±ng Äá»nh (ćŒćź 1601 â 1619) | Deposed and forced to commit suicide by Trá»nh TĂčng following a court plot. | ||
| Tháș§n TĂŽng (ç„ćź) | UyĂȘn HoĂ ng Äáșż (æ·”çćž) | LĂȘ Duy Kỳ (é»ç¶ç„ș) | Son of Emperor KĂnh TĂŽng and Empress Ngá»c Trinh, Trá»nh TĂčng's daughter. | 1619â1643, 1649â1662 (16) | VÄ©nh Tá» (æ°žç„ 9/1619 â 1628), Äức Long (ćŸ·é 1629 â 1634), DÆ°ÆĄng HĂČa (éœć 1635 â 9/1643), KhĂĄnh Äức (æ ¶ćŸ· 10/1649 â 1652), Thá»nh Äức (çćŸ· 1653 â 1657), VÄ©nh Thá» (æ°žćŁœ 1658 â 8/1662), VáșĄn KhĂĄnh (èŹæ ¶ 9/1662) | Quáș§n Ngá»c lÄng | First Trá»nh-Nguyá» n War broke out in 1627. Became Emperor regent in 1643 when his son LĂȘ Duy Há»±u was enthroned. Second rule from 1649 after his son's death. Trá»nh Lords were de facto rulers. | |
| ChĂąn TĂŽng (çćź) | Thuáșn HoĂ ng Äáșż (é çćž) | LĂȘ Duy Há»±u (é»ç¶ç„) | Son of Emperor Tháș§n TĂŽng | 1643â1649 (17) | PhĂșc ThĂĄi (çŠæł°) | Hoa Phá» lÄng | Trá»nh TrĂĄng was de facto ruler. | |
| Huyá»n TĂŽng (çćź) | MỄc HoĂ ng Äáșż (ç©çćž) | LĂȘ Duy VĆ© (é»ç¶çŠ) | Son of Emperor Tháș§n TĂŽng | 1662â1671 (18) | CáșŁnh Trá» (æŻæČ») | An LÄng | Married to Empress Ngá»c Ăng, Trá»nh TáșĄc's daughter. Died at age 17 without an heir. Trá»nh TáșĄc was de facto ruler. | |
| Gia TĂŽng (ććź) | Khoan Minh Máș«n ÄáșĄt Anh QuáșŁ Huy Nhu KháșŻc NhĂąn Äá»c NghÄ©a Má»č HoĂ ng Äáșż (每ææéè±æćŸœæć ä»çŻ€çŸ©çŸçćž) | LĂȘ Duy Cá»i (é»ç¶çŠŹ) | Son of Emperor Tháș§n TĂŽng | 1671â1675 (19) | DÆ°ÆĄng Äức (éœćŸ· 1672 â 1674), Äức NguyĂȘn (ćŸ·ć 1674 â 1675) | PhĂșc An lÄng | Adopted by Trá»nh TáșĄc at early age. Enthroned when he was 10 and died of cholera 5 years later. Trá»nh TáșĄc was de facto ruler. | |
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Hy TĂŽng (çćź) | ChÆ°ÆĄng HoĂ ng Äáșż (ç« çćž) | LĂȘ Duy CĂĄp (é»ç¶ç„«) | Son of Emperor Tháș§n TĂŽng | 1675â1705 (20) | VÄ©nh Trá» (æ°žæČ» 1676 â 1680), ChĂnh HoĂ (æŁć 1680 â 1705) | PhĂș lÄng | War with the Nguyá» n Lords in Cochinchina over, the last remnants of MáșĄc dynasty and Báș§u lords were conquered. Trá»nh TáșĄc and Trá»nh CÄn were de facto rulers. |
| DỄ TĂŽng (èŁćź) | Thuáș§n ChĂnh Huy Nhu Ăn GiáșŁn Từ TÆ°á»ng Khoan Huá» TĂŽn Máș«u HĂČa HoĂ ng Äáșż (çŽæŁćŸœææș«ç°Ąæ 焄每æ éæćçćž) | LĂȘ Duy ÄÆ°á»ng (é»ç¶çŠ) | Son of Emperor Hy TĂŽng | 1705â1729 (21) | VÄ©nh Thá»nh (æ°žç 1706 â 1719), BáșŁo ThĂĄi (äżæł° 1720 â 1729) | Kim TháșĄch | The LĂȘ court recognized the Manchu Qing legitimates over China, Kangxi Emperor sent envoy and gave the title An Nam quá»c vÆ°ÆĄng ćźććœç (King of Annam) for DỄ TĂŽng in 1718.[150] Trá»nh Lords were de facto rulers. Deposed by Trá»nh CÆ°ÆĄng. | |
| LĂȘ Duy PhÆ°á»ng (é»ç¶ç„) | Son of Emperor DỄ TĂŽng and Empress Ngá»c Trang, aunt of Trá»nh CÆ°ÆĄng. | 1732â1735 (22) | VÄ©nh KhĂĄnh (æ°žæ ¶) | Kim LĆ© | Deposed by and killed by Trá»nh Giang. Posthumously named by the condescending title HĂŽn Äức cĂŽng (Duke of Ambiguous Virtues) | |||
| Thuáș§n TĂŽng (çŽćź) | GiáșŁn HoĂ ng Äáșż (ç°Ąçćž) | LĂȘ Duy TÆ°á»ng (é»ç¶ç„„) | Son of Emperor DỄ TĂŽng | 1732â1735 (23) | Long Äức (éŸćŸ·) | BĂŹnh NgĂŽ LÄng | Trá»nh Giang was de facto ruler | |
| Ă TĂŽng (æżćź) | Ăn Gia Trang TĂșc KháșŁi TĂșy Minh Máș«n Khoan Há»ng UyĂȘn Duá» Huy HoĂ ng Äáșż (æș«ćèè æ·æéæ每æŽȘæ·”çżćŸœçćž) | LĂȘ Duy Tháșn (é»ç¶ç„ł) | Son of Emperor Thuáș§n TĂŽng | 1735â1740 (24) | VÄ©nh Há»±u (æ°žäœ) | PhĂč LĂȘ lÄng | Forced to abdicate by Lord Trá»nh Doanh. The last ThĂĄi thÆ°á»Łng hoĂ ng (retired emperor) of Vietnam. | |
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Hiá»n TĂŽng (饯ćź) | VÄ©nh HoĂ ng Äáșż (æ°žçćž) | LĂȘ Duy DiĂȘu (é»ç¶ç„§) | Son of Emperor Thuáș§n TĂŽng | 1740â1786 (25) | CáșŁnh HÆ°ng (æŻè) | BĂ n TháșĄch lÄng | Rebellions by Prince LĂȘ Duy Máșt (1740-1770) and PháșĄm CĂŽng Cháș„t (1767-1769). Relationship with the Trá»nh Lordship deteriorated after Trá»nh Doanh's death in 1767. Crown prince LĂȘ Duy VÄ© killed by Trá»nh SĂąm who planned to abolish the LĂȘ Throne. TĂąy SÆĄn Rebellion broke out in Cochinchina in 1771, weakening the Nguyá» n Lords. Trá»nh SĂąm attacked the ÄĂ ng Trong realm and captured Thuáșn HĂła in 1774. Royal Guards rebellion (1782-1784) after Trá»nh SĂąm's death led to unrest. TĂąy SÆĄn troops under Nguyá» n Huá» began northern campaign, captured ThÄng Long in 1786. |
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Máș«n HoĂ ng Äáșż (æçćž) | LĂȘ Duy Kỳ (é»ç¶ç„) | Son of Crown Prince LĂȘ Duy VÄ© of Emperor Hiá»n TĂŽng | 1786â1789 (26) | ChiĂȘu Thá»ng (æç”±) | Hoa DÆ°ÆĄng lÄng | Enthroned under Nguyá» n Huá»'s supervision. Defeated pro-Trá»nh forces with help of warlord Nguyá» n Hữu Chá»nh. A second TĂąy SÆĄn northern campaign captured ThÄng Long in 1787. ChiĂȘu Thá»ng sought help from the Qing dynasty but was defeated in the Battle of Ngá»c Há»i-Äá»ng Äa in 1789. Went to asylum and died in Beijing in 1793. | |
See also
[edit]Notes
[edit]- â The use of the Classical Chinese language in documents and correspondences is distinct from the use of the Chữ NĂŽm writing system for the Vietnamese language.
- â Especially when referring to the family.
Citations
[edit]- 1 2 3 Le Loi at the EncyclopĂŠdia Britannica
- 1 2 3 Womack, B. (2012). "Asymmetry and China's Tributary System". The Chinese Journal of International Politics. 5 (1): 37â54. doi:10.1093/cjip/pos003. ISSNÂ 1750-8916.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Baldanza, Kathlene (2014). "Perspectives on the 1540 Mac Surrender to the Ming". Asia Major. 27 (2): 115â146. JSTORÂ 44740553.
- 1 2 Holcombe, Charles (2017). A History of East Asia. Cambridge University Press. ISBNÂ 9781107118737.
- â Hannas, William C. (1997). Asia's Orthographic Dilemma. University of Hawaii Press. p. 83. ISBN 978-0-8248-1892-0.
An exception was during the brief Há» dynasty (1400â07), when Chinese was abolished and chữ NĂŽm became the official script, but the subsequent Chinese invasion and twenty-year occupation put an end to that (Helmut Martin 1982:34).
- â J. Gordon Melton, Martin Baumann (21 September 2010). Religion of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of beliefs and practices. Abc-Clio. p. 426. ISBN 9781598842043. Retrieved 13 April 2014.
- â Taouti 1985, pp. 197â198
- â ÄáșĄi Viá»t's Office of History 1993, pp. 509.
- â "Open Doors International : Vietnam". Archived from the original on 2007-12-14. Retrieved 2007-03-29.
- â Asia: Local Studies / Global Themes â Volume 3 Hue-Tam Ho Tai â 2001 â Page 91 "... an anti-Ming resistance â the Lam Son uprising, begun in 1418 â and the two men became the movement's key exponents. As emperor (1428â33), Le Loi would retain Nguyen Trai as his chief official; thereafter, their relationship was made ..."
- â Lonely Planet Vietnam 10 -Nick Ray, Yu-Mei Balasingamchow, Iain Stewart â 2009 Page 30 "In 1418 wealthy philanthropist Le Loi sparked the Lam Son Uprising by refusing to serve as an official for the Chinese Ming dynasty. By 1428, local rebellions had erupted in several regions and Le Loi travelled the countryside to rally ..."
- â H. K. Chang â From Movable Type Printing to the World Wide Web 2007 Page 128 "However, in 1418, another leader, LĂȘ Lợi, staged an uprising, which led in 1428 to the establishment of the LĂȘ dynasty, from which time Vietnam broke free of China and became independent".
- â Ngá»c ÄÄ©nh VĆ© HĂ o kiá»t Lam SÆĄn: trÆ°á»ng thiĂȘn tiá»u thuyáșżt lá»ch sá» Volume 1 â 2003 "The Lam SÆĄn uprising, 1418â1428, is one of the greatest historical events in Vietnamese history, when a small country tried to gain independence from the firm grab of a bigger neighbor".
- â Laurel Kendall Vietnam: Journeys of Body, Mind, and Spirit 2003â Page 27 "Le Loi led a successful ten-year (1418â1428) uprising against the Chinese. According to legend, Le Loi returned the sword that gave him victory to Hoan Kiem Lake (now the center of Hanoi), where it was retrieved by a giant turtle".
- â Low, Joey (Spring 2018). MING CHINA IN VIETNAM AND VALOIS FRANCE IN ITALY: POLITICAL ACTORS AND PUBLIC NARRATIVES OF INVASION AND OCCUPATION IN THE PREMODERN WORLD (A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of California State University, Fullerton ____________________________________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts in History). pp. 1â153.
- â Chan Chung Jin, p. 149
- â Le Loi. The Encycloaedia Britannica. Micropedia, Volume VI, 15th Edition. ISBNÂ 0-85229-339-9
- â Tráș§n Trá»ng Kim, Viá»t Nam sá» lÆ°á»Łc, vol. I, part. III, sec. XIV(1418â1427)
- â History of Ming, çéäŒ
- â Tráș§n Trá»ng Kim (2005). Viá»t Nam sá» lÆ°á»Łc (in Vietnamese). Ho Chi Minh City: Ho Chi Minh City General Publishing House. pp. 212â213.
- 1 2 Shih-shan Henry Tsai (1996). The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty. SUNY Press. pp. 15â. ISBN 978-0-7914-2687-6.
- â NgĂŽ SÄ© LiĂȘn 1993, University of Tokyo's Toyo Cultural Research Institute, pïŒ546ïŒ548
- 1 2 3 Baldanza, Kathlene (2016). Ming China and Vietnam: Negotiating Borders in Early Modern Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 204â210. doi:10.1017/cbo9781316440551.013. ISBN 978-1-316-44055-1.
- â Viá»t Nam sá» lÆ°á»Łc, p. 96.
- â NgĂŽ SÄ© LiĂȘn 1993, pp 361.
- â "...Our ThĂĄi tá» majesty just had retaken the Tianxia, the country was not recovered, and HĂŁn, XáșŁo wanted to conspired against the court...", Nguyá» n Trá»±c 1441
- â "LĂȘ, Lợi King of Vietnam 1385â1433". worldcat.
- 1 2 3 4 Theobald
- â ÄáșĄi Viá»t sá» kĂœ toĂ n thÆ°, NgĂŽ SÄ© LiĂȘn, 1993, volume XI, p. 391
- â ÄáșĄi Viá»t sá» kĂœ toĂ n thÆ°, NgĂŽ SÄ© LiĂȘn, 1993, volume XI, p. 392
- â ÄáșĄi Viá»t sá» kĂœ toĂ n thÆ°, NgĂŽ SÄ© LiĂȘn, 1993, volume XI, p. 397â403.
- â ereka.vn (13 April 2018). "Nomadic people in Vietnamese history".
- â Kathlene Baldanza (2016). Ming China and Vietnam. Cambridge University Press. pp. 83â84. ISBN 9781316440551.
- â Baldanza, Kathlene (2016). Ming China and Vietnam: Negotiating Borders in Early Modern Asia. Cambridge University Press. p. 84.
- â Vietnam, Trials and Tribulations of a Nation D. R. SarDesai, ppg 35â37, 1988
- â Pastoetter, Ph.D., Jakob (2004). "Vietnam (Cá»ng hoĂ XĂŁ há»i chủ nghÄ©a Viá»t Nam) (Socialist Republic of Vietnam)". In Francoeur, Robert T.; Noonan, Raymond J. (eds.). The Continuum Complete International Encyclopedia of Sexuality. Updates by J. Pastoetter; contributor Beldina Opiyo-Omolo (illustrated, revised ed.). A&C Black. p. 1350. ISBN 0826414885.
D. Homosexuality and Vietnamese Law Proschan (Aronson 1999; "Frank" 2000) writes that neither homosexual identity nor behaviors had ... a prohibition of castration and selfcastration (Le Code, Article 305; Nguyen Code, Article 344).
- â Nguy~en, Ngá»g Huy (1987). The LĂȘ Code: Law in Traditional Vietnam : a Comparative Sino-Vietnamese Legal Study with Historical-juridical Analysis and Annotations, Volume 2. The LĂȘ Code: Law in Traditional Vietnam : a Comparative Sino-Vietnamese Legal Study with Historical-juridical Analysis and Annotations, VÄn TĂ i TáșĄ. Ohio University Press. p. 174. ISBN 0821406302.
Law in Traditional Vietnam : a Comparative Sino-Vietnamese Legal Study with Historical-juridical Analysis and Annotations Ngá»g Huy Nguy~en ... In 1464 Emperor LĂȘ ThĂĄnh TĂŽng warned people against reckless selfcastration ( TT 3 : 189 ) .
- â é»ćèŁ (2008-03-16). "æ代ćčżäžæ”·äžäžç»žäčè·Żçé«ćșŠćć±". ććžç¶ČïŒïŒäžćç¶æżćČè«ćŁ(China Economic History Forum). Archived from the original on 2013-09-21. Retrieved 26 July 2013.
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¶æ°. "èČżæă移æźèæćäș€æ”:15â17 äžçŽć»Łæ±äșșèè¶ć" (PDF). 滣æ±ç瀟æç§ćžéąæ·ćČç 究æ ćé性ćžäžć瀟ææ·ćČç 究äžćż. p. 12. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-05-29. Retrieved 5 January 2013.
æ€ć€,æČżæ”·ćčłæ°ćšæ”·äžèȘèĄææææŒç”,ééąšæŒæ”èłè¶ćè ææçŒçăćŠæććäžćčŽ, 滣æ±ç æ± ć„ćŸĄéłćœć„:ćæ”·çžŁæ°ééąšéŁèłćźćèą«ç·šć „è»éćèą«éčçŠè è¶ é 100 äșșă5æćäž, æ”·ćææäșșćłçèćéćæ±ç 13 äșșć°æŹœć·ćçæ,ééąšéŁèłćźć,ç¶ć±ć°ä»ć"äż±çŒć±Żç°, 仄ççšć°,ćźźäč"ă6... 6ăæććźćŻŠéăć·äžçŸäșćäž,ćŒæČ»ćäșćčŽć «æèŸćŻă
- â Shin, Leo K. (2007). "Ming China and Its Border with Annam". In Lary, Diana (ed.). The Chinese State at the Borders. Vancouver, Canada: UBC Press. p. 91. ISBN 978-0774813334. Retrieved 5 January 2013.
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- â Wade 2005, p. 2704/05
- â "éŠéĄ” > 06ćČè-1725éš > 03ć«ćČ-100éš > 47-æćźćœććźćźćœ-- > 146-æććźæŹçćžćźćœć·äčäžçŸäșćäž". æ毊é (Ming Shilu) (in Chinese). Retrieved 5 January 2013.
- â ăæććźćźćœăć·äžäșäžïŒćŒæČ»ćäșćčŽć «æèŸćŻ
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- â Cooke (2011), p. 108 The Tongking Gulf Through History, p. 108, at Google Books
- â PGS.TSKH Nguyá» n HáșŁi Káșż(Associate Professor Dr. Nguyen Hai Ke) (28 March 2013). "CĂ Má»T VĂN Äá»N á» GIởA YĂN BANG, YĂN QUáșąNG KHĂNG TÄšNH Láș¶NG". ćčżć·æ„æ„性æŽçœ(www.dayoo.com). Archived from the original on 2 December 2013. Retrieved 26 July 2013.
- â PGS.TSKH Nguyá»
n HáșŁi Káșż(Associate Professor Dr. Nguyen Hai Ke) (22 April 2013). "CĂ Má»T VĂN Äá»N á» GIởA YĂN BANG, YĂN QUáșąNG KHĂNG TÄšNH Láș¶NG". ćčżć·æ„æ„性æŽçœ(www.dayoo.com). Retrieved 26 July 2013.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link) - â LĂȘ VÄn HÆ°u; Phan Phu TiĂȘn; NgĂŽ SÄ© LiĂȘn, eds. (1993). "Pháș§n 26 (BáșŁn ká»· thá»±c lỄc Q2(a) NhĂ Háșu LĂȘ (1460â1472).)". ÄáșĄi Viá»t Sá» KĂœ ToĂ n ThÆ°. Viá»n Khoa Há»c XĂŁ Há»i Viá»t Nam dá»ch. NhĂ xuáș„t báșŁn Khoa Há»c XĂŁ Há»i (HĂ Ná»i) áș„n hĂ nh. Archived from the original on 21 September 2013. Retrieved 26 July 2013.
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- â ă性ææČćźçŽçćžćŻŠéć·äčäșçŸćäčă
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Simplified Chinese:âæ»Ąćć ćœäœżèŁç«ŻäșćŠćçéŁæ„çć„æćäșćčŽæŹćœäœżèŁćŸźè ç¶éŁć „èŽĄèżèłćœæŽèą«éŁæŒèłćźććœćŸźè ç¶éŁäžć ¶ćä»äż±äžșć ¶ćœææć ¶äœé»„äžșćźć„ŽèćčŒè çäžșæćźłćèšćźćæźć ććæ± æŹČćč¶ćæ»Ąćć äčć°æŹćœä»„çäžșçèŁæȘæąć Žć ”äžæéćźćäœżèŁäșŠæ„æç«ŻäșćŠćçéŁæ„äčäžć»·èŸšć ”éšć°äčŠééș仄äžșæ€ć·ČćŸäșäžćż æ·±æ Ąćźæć ¶ć°æ„ äžäčć ćźćäœżèŁèżè°ć ¶çé»çæ°ć°ćœäžæ»Ąćć äż±ć„æŁæćźäżźçŠç»ć„œè©ć±ç柀ćČćŻèȘæćŻćŒș仄ćčČćœć žä»„èŽȘć€©ç„žæ»Ąćć äœżèŁæć„æć»·èœæȘèœ»äżĄć°äșŠćźçèșŹæćç怩ćźæłèȘäżć ¶ćœć€è°æ»Ąćć äœżèŁæ°èȘć€ćŁçäčé©ć怷äžèżœćäșæąćŸćźćæć€äŸ”é”ć°ćœćźèźç»ćŁ«é©Źä»„ćŸĄäč Traditional Chinese:âæ»żćć ćäœżèŁç«ŻäșćȘœćçéŁæ„çć„æćäșćčŽæŹćäœżèŁćŸźè ç¶éŁć „èČąéèłç¶æŽèą«éąšæŒèłćźćććŸźè ç¶éŁèć ¶ććŸäż±çșć ¶ćææźșć ¶é€é»„çșćźć„ŽèćčŒè ççșæćźłćèšćźćæć ććæ± æŹČ䜔ćæ»żćć äčć°æŹć仄ççșçèŁæȘæąèć ”èæ°é©ćźćäœżèŁäșŠäŸæç«ŻäșćȘœćçéŁæ„äčèć»·èŸšć ”éšć°æžéłé仄çșæ€ć·ČćŸäșäžćż æ·±æ Ąćźæć ¶ć°äŸ äžäčć ćźćäœżèŁéè«ć ¶çé»çæ°çŸćèæ»żćć äż±ć„æŁæćźäżźçŠç”ć„œè©ć±ç柀è±ćŻèȘæćŻćŒ·ä»„ćččćć žä»„èČȘ怩çŠæ»żćć äœżèŁæć„æć»·éæȘèŒäżĄçŸäșŠćźçèșŹæćç怩ćźæłèȘäżć ¶ćè€è«æ»żćć äœżèŁæ°èȘć€èçäčéŠć怷äžèżœćäșæąćŸćźćæè€äŸ”é”çŸććźèšç·ŽćŁ«éŠŹä»„犊äč
- â Wade 2005, p. 2078/79
- â "éŠéĄ” > 06ćČè-1725éš > 03ć«ćČ-100éš > 49-æćźćœćźȘćźćźćœ-- > 106-æćźȘćźçșŻçćžćźćœć·äčäžçŸć ". æ毊é (Ming Shilu) (in Chinese). Retrieved 5 January 2013.
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- â Tsai (1996), The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty (Ming Tai Huan Kuan), p. 16, at Google Books
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- Taouti, Seddik (1985). "The Forgotten Muslims of Kampuchea and Viet Nam". In Datuk Ahmad Ibrahim; Yasmin Hussain; Siddique, Sharon (eds.). Readings on Islam in Southeast Asia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. pp. 193â202. ISBN 9971988089.
- Taylor, K. W. (2013). A History of the Vietnamese. Cambridge University Press. ISBNÂ 978-0521875868.
- ThỄy KhuĂȘ (2017). Vua Gia Long vĂ ngÆ°á»i PhĂĄp: kháșŁo sĂĄt vá» áșŁnh hÆ°á»ng của ngÆ°á»i PhĂĄp trong giai ÄoáșĄn triá»u Nguyá» n (in Vietnamese). NhĂ xuáș„t báșŁn Há»ng Äức. ISBN 978-6049517655. OCLC 1079783921.
- Theobald, Ulrich (2018). "Vietnam". ChinaKnowledge.de - An Encyclopaedia on Chinese History, Literature and Art. Ulrich Theobald. Retrieved 27 June 2019.
- KhĂĄnh Tráș§n (1993). The Ethnic Chinese and Economic Development in Vietnam. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBNÂ 9789813016675. Retrieved 26 April 2012.
- Tsai, Shih-Shan Henry (1996). The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty (Ming Tai Huan Kuan) (illustrated ed.). SUNY Press. ISBN 0791426874. Retrieved 5 January 2013.
- Wade, Geoff (2005), Southeast Asia in the Ming Shi-lu: an open access resource, Asia Research Institute and the Singapore E-Press, National University of Singapore, retrieved 6 November 2012
- Whitmore, John K. (2011). "Chapter 6 VĂąn Äá»n, the 'MáșĄc Gap,' and the End of the Jiaozhi Ocean System: Trade and State in ÄáșĄi Viá»t, Circa 1450â1550". In Cooke, Nola; Li, Tana; Anderson, James (eds.). The Tongking Gulf Through History (illustrated ed.). University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0812243369. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Further reading
[edit]- Tráș§n, Thá» Vinh (2017), Nguyá» n, Ngá»c MĂŁo (ed.), Lá»ch Sá» Viá»t Nam: Volume 4, History of Vietnam from XVII to XVIII century, Institute of History of Vietnam: Social Science, pp. 212â265, EAN 893-5-075-40833-3.
- NgĂŽ, SÄ© LiĂȘn (1993), ÄĂ o, Duy Anh (ed.), ÄáșĄi Viá»t Sá» KĂœ toĂ n thÆ°: Book XI, Imperial library of Vietnam: LĂȘ Dynasty, ISBN 978-5-020-18267-7.
- æćČ·ćźććł
External links
[edit]- LĂȘ dynasty on EncyclopĂŠdia Britannica
- HoĂ ng LĂȘ Nháș„t Thá»ng ChĂ History of the LĂȘ Dynasty on Leipzig University Library
- LĂȘ Dynasty on GlobalSecurity.org
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