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Burning of Manisa

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Fire of Manisa
Part of Greek scorched-earth retreat during the Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)[1][2]
Map of the town and its traditional neighborhoods before the fire.[3]
Map
Date5–8 September 1922[4][5]
Location
Also known asThe Great Fire of Manisa (Template:Lang-ota, lit. 'The Terrible / Dreadful Fire')[7]
ParticipantsHellenic Army (organized Demolition Battalions / İhrak Taburları under Garrison Commander Col. Bagorçi/Yagorci and Chief of Staff Lt. Col. Filipos),[8][9] accompanied by local Greek and Armenian irregulars;[10][11] retreating Greek columns and collaborationist elements[12]
OutcomeSystematic destruction of 90% to 98% of the town (10,300 to 10,730 houses, 2,728 shops razed);[13][14][15] Red Crescent recorded an overall loss of 43,000 people and 25,236 houses destroyed across the regional disaster zone[16]
Deaths4,355 dead according to official Turkish records (3,500 burned alive, 855 shot dead);[13][17] 3,716 dead according to the Bursa Governorate Damage Report;[18] 2,000 dead according to Atrocity Inquiry reports;[19] 167 hospitalized wounded;[13][14] 180 to over 300 women raped or abducted;[20][21][14] 500 missing captives from Yarhasanlar neighborhood;[19] 4,500 total citizens exiled to Greece (including 400 women)[21]

The Burning of Manisa (Turkish: Manisa yangını), officially recorded in contemporary Ottoman archival records as Harîk-i Hâil (Template:Lang-ota, lit. 'The Terrible / Dreadful Fire'),[22] refers to the systematic burning of the city of Manisa, present-day Turkey, which started on the night of Tuesday, 5 September 1922 and continued until 8 September.[4][23] The fire was organized and carried out by the retreating Hellenic Army[24][25] following their defeat during the Turkish Great Offensive, as part of an organized scorched-earth policy along their retreat line toward the Aegean coast.[1][26]

As a result of the conflagration, between 90% and 98% of the town was completely leveled.[26][15][27] Primary Turkish military records and local commission inquiries registered that 3,500 people were burned to death and 855 were shot dead (a total of 4,355 deaths), 167 were wounded, and between 180 and over 300 women and young girls were raped or abducted.[13][17][20][21][14] In the wider Saruhan Sanjak, the Ottoman Red Crescent reported that 43,000 inhabitants disappeared from the population rolls and 25,236 houses were destroyed.[16] United States Vice-Consul James Loder Park, who inspected the interior cities shortly after the evacuation, reported that the destruction of Manisa reached 98% and confirmed that the arson "was not desultory, nor intermittent, nor accidental, but well planned and thoroughly organized."[26]

Background

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A view of Manisa before the fire, showing the area around the Cami-i Kebir neighborhood with the Sultan and Muradiye imperial Ottoman mosques in front.

Manisa is a historic town in Western Anatolia beneath the north side of Mount Sipylus that became part of the Ottoman Empire in the 15th century.[4] During Ottoman rule, the town was governed by several princes[28] (called Şehzade) and so is also known as a "town of the princes" (Şehzadeler şehri). Many examples of Ottoman architecture were built over the next few centuries, such as the Muradiye Mosque, designed by the architect Mimar Sinan in 1586,[29] and built for Murad III.[30]

Pre-war Demographics (1917–1919)

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During the National Struggle, Manisa (Saruhan Sanjak) was one of the four sanjaks of the Aydın Vilayet, consisting of eleven districts (kaza).[31][32] At the end of 1917, the registered population was 448,572, but had fallen by approximately 10,000 due to World War I; official Ottoman records note that in the first ten months of 1917 alone, 10,219 people died across the sanjak (8,979 Muslims, of whom 6,842 were adult males).[31][33]

Official Ottoman General Staff records compiled in 1919 show the demographic distribution as follows:[34]

  • Saruhan Sanjak (1919 Total Population: 438,372):
    • Muslim Turks: 385,019 (87.8%)[34]
    • Greeks: 44,850 (10.2%)[34]
    • Armenians: 4,258 (1.0%)[34]
    • Jews: 3,872 (0.9%)[34]
    • Foreign/Other communities: 373 (0.1%)[34]
  • Manisa Central District (1919 Total Population: 118,642 across 235 villages and Palamut subdistrict):[35]
    • Muslim Turks: 91,467 (77.1%)[34]
    • Greeks: 22,260 (18.8%)[34]
    • Armenians: 2,418 (2.0%)[34]
    • Jews: 2,186 (1.84%)[34]
    • Protestants: 230[34]
    • Armenian Catholics: 19[34]
    • Latins: 4[34]
    • Foreigners: 47[34]

Greek Occupation (1919–1922)

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Following the landing of Greek forces in Smyrna on 15 May 1919, the Greek army expanded its zone into the interior.[36] On 25 May 1919, a Greek vanguard of ten cavalrymen under an officer entered Manisa, followed shortly by the main body of troops under Colonel Çakalos.[37] Ottoman Sub-Governor (Mutasarrıf) Giritli Hüsnü telegraphed the Ministry of the Interior (Dahiliye Nezareti) stating that a Greek major had arrived at his office to announce the occupation on behalf of the Allied Powers, urging the Muslim population to avoid resistance.[38][39]

During the three-year occupation, the civilian population was subjected to tight curfews and martial rule:

  • Movement Restrictions and Outrages: Guard detachments were established at the Gediz bridge and all entrance roads; leaving the city required a signed and sealed permit from the Greek military command.[40] Citizens traveling to fields and vineyards were searched; finding even a small pocketknife led to penalties, and Muslim women suffered widespread indignities during body searches.[41]
  • Deportations and Executions: Prominent civic leaders—including Külahdaşın Rıza, Tayyare Cemiyeti Secretary Rıza, Asım Hoca, and Giritli Hacı Hilmi Bey—were arrested and exiled to Athens.[42] During weapons searches in July 1919, missing civilians Uncu Mahmut, Hafız Mehmet, İsmail, and İbrahim were found murdered in the Kireç Çukuru and Kırtık localities.[43] On 14 January 1920, Greek irregulars raided the nearby village of Keçili, killing four villagers, wounding eight, severing the ear of a prominent local named Hacı Ahmet oğlu Veli, and murdering his daughter and son-in-law.[44]
  • Desecration of Ulu Cami: On 12 February 1921, the Greek Metropolitan of Manisa and village priests, accompanied by local Greeks, climbed up to the historic Ulu Cami; they trampled and tore up copies of the Quran, defaced the mihrab and walls with Greek writing, and rang the clock tower bell like a church bell to assemble the Christian populace.[45]
  • Coerced Autonomy Petitions: In July–August 1922, during the Greek attempt to establish an autonomous "Ionian State", collaborationist Governor Hüsnü Bey summoned Mayor Rıza Bey and Mufti İsmail Hakkı Bey to sign petitions thanking Greek High Commissioner Aristeidis Stergiadis; despite resistance, local officials were forced under threat of death to sign the declaration.[46]

Fire

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Mount Sipylus overlooking Manisa, where tens of thousands of residents fled during the fire.

The Turkish Great Offensive began on 26 August 1922, routing the Greek forces at Dumlupınar.[47] During their headlong retreat toward the Aegean coast, the Hellenic Army carried out a scorched-earth policy, methodically burning towns and committing massacres along their path.[1][25][26] Towns to the east of Manisa, including Uşak (1,800 buildings burned), Alaşehir, Salihli, and Turgutlu, were incinerated.[48][26][49] General Nureddin Pasha, commander of the Turkish First Army, reported from Alaşehir on 5 September: "It is now established that the enemy is annihilating our populace and national wealth according to a systematic program."[49]

Organization and Execution of the Arson

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In Manisa, rumors that the city would be torched had circulated days in advance.[50] The Christian population (Greeks and Armenians) was evacuated in an orderly manner toward İzmir via railway, while Muslim inhabitants were ordered to remain inside their homes.[50][1] Collaborationist Governor Hüsnü Bey abandoned the city and fled to İzmir, leaving the administrative apparatus empty.[51]

The burning of the city was organized by the Greek garrison command under Colonel Bagorçi (or Yagorci) and Lieutenant Colonel Filipos.[50][52][21] Special demolition detachments (İhrak Taburları) were formed, whose members wore red badges on their chests, black kalmaks, and carried signaling horns, incendiary bombs, rags, and portable chemical sprayers filled with petroleum and kerosene.[53][54] Armed irregulars and pickets were stationed around the perimeter to block escape routes to the plain.[53]

  • 5 September (Tuesday night): The initial fire was started in the Karaköy quarter; local citizens managed to extinguish it.[52]
  • 6 September (Wednesday morning): Coordinated arson teams set the city ablaze simultaneously at ten separate points, beginning with the commercial market district (Çarşı) while widespread looting occurred.[53][55] As homes caught fire, residents broke through adjoining garden walls and fled up through the Çaybaşı and Tabakhane dry ravines into the caves and heights of Mount Sipylus (Topkale and Mevlevihane hills).[53][56] The population remained hiding on the mountain slopes for two to three days without food or shelter, watching the city burn below.[57]
  • 7 September (Thursday): The flames consumed surrounding residential quarters. Italian diplomatic reports noted that Salihli, Turgutlu, and Manisa were all torched by the retreating Greek columns.[58] An Italian newspaper reported: "In Manisa, the Greek general organized the devastation with great care and precision down to the smallest detail. While quarters were being burned, he coolly gave orders for further destruction and personally supervised the pouring of gasoline..."[58]
  • 8 September (Friday): Turkish vanguard cavalry units advanced from Saruhanlı and Sinirli.[59] Remaining Greek infantry engaged them in skirmishes at Horozköy and through vineyard walls while continuing to set surviving buildings on fire.[60] In the fighting, three Turkish soldiers—Corporal Zülfikâr from Aksaray, Corporal Hasan from Beypazarı, and Private İsmail from Bursa Yenişehir—were killed and later buried where they fell.[61] By midday, the Turkish 1st Cavalry Division under General Fahrettin Altay liberated the smoking ruins.[60][62]

Eyewitness Testimonies

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Lieutenant Seyfettin Çalbatur of the liberating Turkish 1st Cavalry Division recalled entering the city:[60]

After fighting that lasted quite some time, we saw the enemy in front of us retreating toward Manisa... With this rapid pursuit, we entered Manisa... The enemy was fleeing along the main avenue into the inner quarters... Linking up with our units entering from various directions amid the corpses of our murdered civilians lying on the ground, and the groans and cries of wounded men and children, our first task was to gather the wounded in front of the Government House and dress their wounds.[60]

General Kemal Balıkesir, who entered with the Turkish forces, wrote:[63]

As I passed near the station, my heart shuddered when my eye caught the corpse of a young woman lying on a heap of fire debris on a hill, with her child still held to her chest.[64]

Gülfem Kaatçılar İren witnessed the fire as a child and remembered fleeing to the hills with her family:[65]

After escaping the militia towards dawn, we climbed up a dry stream bed to hide in the hills. As we climbed, the city was burning, and we were lit by its light and warmed by its heat. It burned for three days and three nights. I saw the windowpanes of houses explode like bombs. Sacks of grapes stuck together, bubbling like jam. Dead cows and horses, balloons with their legs in the air. Ancient trees keeled over, their roots burning like logs. I did not forget these things. The heat, the hunger, the fear, the smell. After three days we saw the dust rise in the valley below. Turkish soldiers on horseback; we thought they were Greeks come to kill us in the hills. I remember three soldiers carrying green and red flags. People kissed the hooves of their horses, crying "Our saviors have come."[65]

General Fahrettin Altay, commander of the 5th Cavalry Corps, recorded:[66]

On the night of 7 September, we saw from afar with sadness that Manisa was burned and when we arrived there on September 8th, the people of Manisa, who fled from the fire to the mountains, came down from the mountains in heaps and began to hug us among the ashes. All possible help was given to the people of Manisa and the government was established. I gave the order to "ADVANCE TO IZMIR WITH HASTE the next morning".

Archival Refugee Declarations (Muhacirin Beyannameleri)

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In January–February 1923, official declaration forms titled "Yunan İşgali Dolayısıyla Zarar ve Ziyana Duçar Olan Muhacir ve Mültecilere Aid Beyanname" (Declarations Belonging to Emigrants and Refugees Subject to Loss and Damage Due to the Greek Occupation) were recorded in the Republican Archives (BCA).[67] Surviving claims provide direct neighborhood-level testimonies:[67]

  • Deveciyan (Ege) Quarter:
    • Sünnetçi Hüseyin Efendi declared that while retreating, Greek forces murdered his brother Vehbi and his son Ali in a horrific manner, and burned all official buildings in the quarter.[67]
    • Hamide Hanım, wife of Yusuf Usta, testified: "All religious and residential buildings in our neighborhood were burned by the Greeks; no inhabited place remained."[67]
  • Hüsrev Ağa Quarter:
    • İbrahim oğlu Mustafa testified that during the retreat, Greek soldiers and local irregulars attacked fleeing families, causing his 10-year-old daughter Naciye to die of fright, and robbed his mother and family of 500 gold liras.[67]
    • Mehmed oğlu Mustafa recorded that his mother-in-law Şerife was martyred by being burned to death inside her house by Greek soldiers on 5 September.[67]
    • Osman oğlu Mehmed and Nasuh oğlu Ahmed declared that while fleeing, they were beaten, thrown to the ground, and stripped of their money and clothes by soldiers.[67]
    • İsmail oğlu Osman testified: "Except for one or two mosques and about a thousand dilapidated houses barely fit for habitation, the city of Manisa, containing over fifteen thousand houses and a population near one hundred thousand, was completely incinerated during the evacuation by the Greeks and local Greek inhabitants."[67]

Aftermath

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Damage

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A picture of a street in Manisa after the fire.

The Turkish government instituted a commission called the Tetkik-i Mezalim or Tetkik-i Fecayi Heyeti ("Atrocity Inquiry Commission")—including authors Halide Edip Adıvar, Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoğlu, and Falih Rıfkı Atay—to document the destruction.[50][68] French government representative Henry Franklin-Bouillon inspected the devastated town and declared that out of 11,000 houses, only 1,000 remained standing.[15] Patrick Kinross wrote: "Out of the eighteen thousand buildings in the historic holy city of Manisa, only five hundred remained."[25]

Official damage compilations from Turkish and international records outline the destruction:

  • Turkish General Staff (ATASE) Records: 10,730 houses, 13 mosques, 12 public baths (hammam), 2,728 shops, 19 inns (han), 3 factories, 5 large agricultural estates (çiftlik), and 1,740 surrounding village houses were burned.[13][17]
  • Press Directorate (Matbuat Müdüriyet-i Umumiyesi) Publication: Listed 10,600 to 10,700 homes, 13 mosques, 2,728 shops, 19 inns, 26 vineyard towers (bağ kulesi), 2 baths, 3 factories, 5 estates, and 1,740 village homes completely destroyed, with material losses exceeding fifty million contemporary liras.[21][19]
  • Bursa Governorate Damage Report (29 March 1923): Documented 9,116 burned houses, 1,500 burned shops, 29 official public buildings, 24 religious buildings, and 24 burned villages in the Manisa region, calculating real estate loss at 54,011,200 liras and movable property loss at 76,135,800 liras (total damage: 130,047,000 liras).[18]
  • Local Surviving Buildings Breakdown (Yörükoğlu): Out of nearly 14,000 homes, only 1,180 survived.[69] Of 36 prominent religious structures, only Hatuniye, Çeşnigir, Muradiye, Sultan, Ulu Cami, Dervişali, Aynıali, İvazpaşa, Lalapaşa, Hacıyahya, Alan, and Yarhasanlar survived; 45 out of 60 neighborhood mescids, 6 out of 12 dervish lodges (tekke), 3 out of 4 libraries, 29 out of 33 madrasas, 37 out of 40 inns and hotels, and 4 out of 6 public baths were burned.[69]
  • Urban Neighborhoods Affected: Analysis of municipal map records shows that out of 56 registered historical neighborhoods, 30 were partially or completely incinerated, including Alaybeyi, Ali Ağa, Attar Hoca, Aynı Ali, Deveciyan, Dilşikar, Hüsrev Ağa, İbrahim Çelebi, İvaz Paşa, Nişancı Paşa, and Yarhasanlar; surviving structures were largely confined to peripheral pockets.[70]

During the Lausanne Conference negotiations, the Turkish delegation demonstrated that over 92% of the buildings in central Manisa (13,638 out of 14,773 buildings) were destroyed, alongside 9,084 rural buildings in the surrounding sanjak, an accounting not contested by the Greek delegation.[71]

US Vice-Consul James Loder Park, who toured the burned interior cities in April 1923, wrote:[26][14]

Manisa ... almost completely wiped out by fire ... 10,300 houses, 15 mosques, 2 baths, 2,278 shops, 19 hotels, 26 villas, 3 flour mills, 5 farm houses, and 1,740 homes in the immediate neighborhood [destroyed]...
"1. The destruction of the interior cities visited by our party was carried out by Greeks."

"2. The percentages of buildings destroyed in each of the last four cities referred to were: Manisa 98 percent [elsewhere estimated at 90%], Cassaba (Turgutlu) 90 percent, Alaşehir 70 percent, Salihli 65 percent."
"3. The burning of these cities was not desultory, nor intermittent, nor accidental, but well planned and thoroughly organized."

"4. There were many instances of physical violence, most of which was deliberate and wanton. Without complete figures, which were impossible to obtain, it may safely be surmised that 'atrocities' committed by retiring Greeks numbered well into thousands in the four cities under consideration. These consisted of all three of the usual type of such atrocities, namely murder, torture and rape."[26][14]

Victims and Humanitarian Crisis

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The exact total number of casualties remains incomplete, but several official compilations exist:

  • Turkish General Staff and Administrative Data: 4,355 deaths were documented within Manisa town—3,500 individuals burned to death in the conflagration and 855 shot dead.[13][17][20] 167 hospitalized wounded were under care following the liberation.[13][14]
  • Atrocity Inquiry Estimates: Commission member Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoğlu estimated that around 2,000 citizens perished inside the city during the fire, leaving only 15,000 destitute survivors out of a previous urban population of 20,000.[19]
  • Bursa Governorate Report: Registered 3,716 dead, 200 wounded, 716 individuals subjected to severe physical beatings/torture, 800 people carried away as captives, 59 cases of rape, 18 rapes of virgins, and 7 forced miscarriages.[18]
  • Abductions and Captives: During the retreat, Greek forces carried off numerous Muslim captives; from the Yarhasanlar neighborhood alone, 500 citizens were marched away and never heard from again.[19] Official figures record between 180 and 300 young women who were raped or abducted.[20][21][19] Additionally, around 4,500 citizens (including 400 women) had been deported to camps in Greece prior to the fire.[21]

The disaster in Manisa formed part of a massive regional refugee flight.[72] In the wider Aydın Vilayet, over 140,000 registered refugees (with total estimates reaching up to 400,000) fled from the Greek operational zones toward Italian-controlled regions (Çine, Muğla, Antalya) and inner Anatolian provinces.[73]

Following the fire, the Ottoman Red Crescent (Hilal-i Ahmer) established the "İzmir-Manisa Relief Delegation" (İzmir-Manisa Heyet-i İmdadiyesi) in mid-September 1922 under the leadership of former Mufti Ahmet Alim Efendi.[16] The Red Crescent established a 30-bed hospital and a dispensary in Manisa, providing free medical treatment and medication to over 26,000 patients across the district.[16] Over nine months of relief operations, the delegation distributed 245,723 kg of flour, 91,731 kg of beans, 14,831 blankets, 34,343 sets of clothing, 57,450 sets of underwear, 25,846 pairs of socks, and baby provisions across Manisa, Turgutlu, Salihli, Alaşehir, and Eşme.[16]

In Turkish Literature

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The event is described in several prominent literary and biographical works:

"Henüz çürümeyen cesetler ve neredeyse henüz tüten yangınlar içinden geçiyorduk. Yanıp külleri savrulan Manisa'ya, cetlerimizin şehrine iki eli böğründe bakakaldık. Yunanlılar çekilişlerinde yok edici bir tahrip yapmışlardı. Yanmayanlar, vakit bulup da yakamadıkları, yaşayanlar fırsat bulup da öldüremedikleri idi. İki millet arasında yalnız birinin arta kalacağı bir boğazlaşma geçmiş olduğunu görüyorduk. Yunanlılar Batı Anadolu'yu Türkler için oturulmaz bir çöle çevirmek istemişlerdi…"[74]

  • Poet İlhan Berk was a young child living in the Deveciler neighborhood at the time of the fire; his family fled to the hills while his older sister, who remained behind in the house, burned to death. He recorded these childhood memories in his autobiographical work Uzun Bir Adam.[75]
  • Historian Kamil Su witnessed the fire as a 13-year-old in the Alaybey neighborhood.[50] On the morning of 6 September, he escaped with his family to Mount Sipylus. Upon returning, he found the streets strewn with corpses and buildings flattened, with only the bare walls of the historic Aydın mosque standing, and an unidentified body lying before the ruins of his home.[50] He documented these events in his 1982 work Manisa ve Yöresinde İşgal Acıları.[50]
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See also

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Notes

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References

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  1. 1 2 3 4 Chenoweth, Erica (2010). Rethinking Violence: States and Non-state Actors in Conflict. MIT Press. p. 49. ISBN 9780262014205.
  2. ↑ Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa", 2023, pp. 143–144.
  3. ↑ Nejdet Bilgi, "1922 Manisa Büyük Yangını: Harîk-i Hâil", Manisa Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, Vol. 20 (Özel Sayı), 2022, pp. 231–233; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa", TÜBA, 2023, p. 143.
  4. 1 2 3 Emecen, Feridun Mustafa (2006). Tarihin içinde Manisa. Manisa Belediyesi. p. 6. ISBN 9789759550608.
  5. ↑ Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa", TÜBA, 2023, pp. 143–144.
  6. ↑ Genelkurmay Askeri Tarih ve Stratejik Etüt (ATASE) Arşivi, A:1-2, D:124, F:6-1 (92-42AB); cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa", p. 135.
  7. ↑ Nejdet Bilgi, "1922 Manisa Büyük Yangını: Harîk-i Hâil", 2022; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa", 2023, p. 143.
  8. ↑ Matbuat Müdüriyet-i Umumiyesi, Anadolu'da Yunan Zulüm ve Vahşeti, İkinci Kısım: Anadolu'da Yunan Fecayiinin Tafsilatı, Ankara: Matbuat ve İstihbarat Matbaası, 1338 (1922), p. 64; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "1922 Manisa Büyük Yangını: Harîk-i Hâil", p. 143.
  9. ↑ M. Nuri Yörükoğlu, Manisa Yangını Triumvira, Vahdet-i Müsellese yahut Üç Günlük Tahrip, Altı Asırlık Bir İmar, Manisa: Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2002, pp. 30–33, 116–121; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa", p. 143.
  10. ↑ James Loder Park, "The Greek Retreat In Asia Minor", US National Archives (NARA), Decimal File 767.68116/34, 11 April 1923, p. 9; cited in Elçin Yılmaz, "İzmir Amerikan Konsolos Yardımcısı James Loder Park'ın Raporu", Journal of History School, 2023, pp. 35, 42.
  11. ↑ Kâmil Su, Manisa ve Yöresinde İşgal Acıları, Ankara: Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı Yayınları, 1982, pp. 26–87; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa", pp. 139–144.
  12. ↑ Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele’de Manisa Merkez (Şehzadeler-Yunusemre)", Yüzüncü Yılında Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa, Vol. 1, Ankara: Berikan Yayınevi, 2020, p. 485; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa", p. 143.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ATASE Arşivi, İSH, K.1948, D.48, F.8-3; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa", p. 144.
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 NARA-767.68116/34, p. 2; cited in Elçin Yılmaz, "İzmir Amerikan Konsolos Yardımcısı James Loder Park'ın Raporu", 2023, p. 35.
  15. 1 2 3 "Turks halt embarkation of all Smyrna refugees; Quit the neutral zone" (PDF). Rome Daily Sentinel. 1922. He declared that out of 11.000 houses in the city of Magnesia only 1.000 remained
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 Türkiye Hilal-i Ahmer Cemiyeti Merkez-i Umumisi Raporu (1335–1338), İstanbul: Ahmed İhsan Matbaası, 1339 (1923), pp. 92–94; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "1922 Manisa Büyük Yangını", p. 144.
  17. 1 2 3 4 Kâmil Su, Manisa ve Yöresinde İşgal Acıları, Ankara: KTB, 1982, pp. 70–71; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa", p. 144.
  18. 1 2 3 Bursa Valiliği Garp Cephesi Komutanlığı Zayiat Raporu (29 March 1923); cited in Talat Yalazan, Türkiye’de Yunan Vahşet ve Soy Kırımı Girişimi, Vol. II, Ankara: Genelkurmay Başkanlığı, 1994, p. 155; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "1922 Manisa Büyük Yangını: Harîk-i Hâil", p. 144.
  19. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Matbuat Müdüriyet-i Umumiyesi, Anadolu'da Yunan Zulüm ve Vahşeti, İkinci Kısım, Ankara, 1338 (1922), pp. 99–101, 105; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "1922 Manisa Büyük Yangını", p. 144.
  20. 1 2 3 4 Ergül, Teoman (1991). Kurtuluş Savaşında Manisa, 1919-1922. Manisa Kültür Sanat Kurumu. p. 337.
  21. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Matbuat Müdüriyet-i Umumiyesi, Anadolu'da Yunan Zulüm ve Vahşeti, İkinci Kısım, p. 64; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "1922 Manisa Büyük Yangını", p. 144.
  22. ↑ Nejdet Bilgi, "1922 Manisa Büyük Yangını: Harîk-i Hâil", Manisa Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, Vol. 20 (Özel Sayı), 2022, pp. 231–251; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa", TÜBA, 2023, p. 143.
  23. ↑ Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa", 2023, pp. 143–144.
  24. ↑ Freely, John (2010). Children of Achilles: The Greeks in Asia Minor Since the Days of Troy. I.B.Tauris. p. 212. ISBN 9781845119416.
  25. 1 2 3 Kinross 1960, p. 318.
  26. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 U.S. Vice-Consul James Loder Park to Secretary of State, Smyrna, 11 April 1923. US National Archives (NARA), Decimal File 767.68116/34; cited in Elçin Yılmaz, "İzmir Amerikan Konsolos Yardımcısı James Loder Park'ın Raporu", Journal of History School, 16(62), 2023, pp. 29–50.
  27. ↑ Mehmet Âsım Us, Gördüklerim Duyduklarım Duygularım, İstanbul: Vakit Matbaası, 1964, p. 60; cited in Elçin Yılmaz, 2023, p. 36.
  28. ↑ Ayliffe, Rosie (2003). Turkey. Rough Guides. p. 313. ISBN 9781843530718.
  29. ↑ Richardson, Terry; Dubin, Marc (2013). The Rough Guide to Turkey. Rough Guides UK. p. 315. ISBN 9781409332473.
  30. ↑ Jayyusi, Salma Khadra; Holod, Renata; Raymond, André; Attilio Petruccioli, Attilio Petruccioli (2008). The City in the Islamic World. BRILL. p. 469. ISBN 9789004171688.
  31. 1 2 Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa", TÜBA, 2023, p. 135.
  32. ↑ Mustafa Turan, Yunan Mezalimi (İzmir, Aydın, Manisa, Denizli-1919-1923), Ankara: ATAM, 1999, p. 8; cited in Süleyman Tekir, Selçuk Ural, "Batı Anadolu'da Yunan İşgali ve Aydın Muhacirleri (1919-1920)", CTAD, 13(26), 2017, p. 127.
  33. ↑ Erkan Serçe (ed.), İzmir ve Çevresi Nüfus İstatistiği 1917, İzmir: Akademi, 1998, pp. 6–33; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa", p. 135.
  34. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 ATASE Arşivi, A:1-2, D:124, F:6-1 (92-42AB); cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa", pp. 135–136.
  35. ↑ 1328 Sene-i Maliye Salname-i Devlet-i Aliyye-i Osmaniyye, Dersaadet: Selanik Matbaası, 1328 (1912), p. 573; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa", p. 136.
  36. ↑ Süleyman Tekir, Selçuk Ural, "Batı Anadolu'da Yunan İşgali ve Aydın Muhacirleri (1919-1920)", CTAD, 13(26), 2017, pp. 128–130.
  37. ↑ Ertuğrul, 26 May 1335 / 26 [25] Şaban 1337, p. 1; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa", p. 138.
  38. ↑ Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivi (BOA), DH.KMS., 52/1-96(5); cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa", p. 138.
  39. ↑ Nejdet Bilgi, İstiklal Yolunda Bestekâr Bir Müftü Ahmet Alim Efendi, Manisa Belediyesi, 2008, pp. 121–122.
  40. ↑ Nusret Köklü, Manisa İşgalden Kurtuluşa, Ankara: Bizim Büro, 1976, pp. 44–45; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa", p. 139.
  41. ↑ Kâmil Su, Manisa ve Yöresinde İşgâl Acıları, Ankara: KTB, 1982, pp. 29–30; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa", p. 139.
  42. ↑ Kâmil Su, "Manisa ve Yunan İşgali-II", Türk Kültürü, 20(228), 1982, p. 44; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa", p. 139.
  43. ↑ BOA, DH.İ.UM., E/54-69; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa", p. 140.
  44. ↑ Oktay Gökdemir (ed.), İzmir'e Doğru, İzmir: İBB, 2010, p. 101; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa", p. 141.
  45. ↑ BOA, DH.İ.UM., 20/26-14/76(2); cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa", p. 142.
  46. ↑ M. Nuri Yörükoğlu, Manisa Yangını Triumvira, Vahdet-i Müsellese yahut Üç Günlük Tahrip, Altı Asırlık Bir İmar, Manisa: CBÜ, 2002, pp. 30–33; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa", pp. 142–143.
  47. ↑ Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa", 2023, p. 143.
  48. ↑ Mahmut Soydan, "Siirt Mebusu Mahmud Bey'in Günlük Not Defteri", Hayat Tarih Mecmuası, 2(7), 1966, p. 18; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "1922 Manisa Büyük Yangını: Harîk-i Hâil", p. 233.
  49. 1 2 Askeri Tarih Belgeleri Dergisi (ATBD), 43(98), Ankara: Genelkurmay, 1994, pp. 18, 20; 1995, pp. 25–27, 41–44, 56–58; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "1922 Manisa Büyük Yangını", pp. 233–234.
  50. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Su, Kamil (1982). Manisa ve yöresinde işgal acıları. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı. pp. 26–87.
  51. ↑ Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele'de Manisa Merkez", 2020, p. 485; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa", p. 143.
  52. 1 2 M. Nuri Yörükoğlu, Manisa Yangını, 2002, pp. 116–121; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa", p. 143.
  53. 1 2 3 4 Nusret Köklü, Manisa İşgalden Kurtuluşa, Ankara: Bizim Büro, 1976, pp. 87–88; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa", p. 143.
  54. ↑ Mehmet Âsım Us, "Yunan Ordusunun ve Hükûmetinin Sorumluluğu", İzmir'den Bursa'ya, İstanbul: Atlas, 1984, pp. 126–128; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa", p. 143.
  55. ↑ Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoğlu, "Küçük Neron", İzmir'den Bursa'ya, pp. 36–37; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa", p. 143.
  56. ↑ Kâmil Su, İşgal Acıları, 1982, pp. 60–65; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa", p. 143.
  57. ↑ O. Tuğrul, "Manisa Yanarken", Yeni Doğuş, 11-12, 1934, pp. 11–13; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa", p. 143.
  58. 1 2 Mevlüt Çelebi, "İtalyan Kaynaklarında Manisa'nın İşgali ve Kurtuluşu", Yüzüncü Yılında Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa, Vol. 1, 2020, pp. 59–60; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa", pp. 143–144.
  59. ↑ Nusret Köklü, Manisa, 1976, pp. 92–94; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa", p. 144.
  60. 1 2 3 4 Seyfettin Çalbatur, "Manisa'nın Kurtuluşu", Anılarla Manisa (ed. Bedriye Aksakal), Manisa: Turizm Derneği, 1986, pp. 17–20; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa", p. 144.
  61. ↑ Nusret Köklü, Manisa, p. 95; Kâmil Su, İşgal Acıları, p. 75; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa", p. 144.
  62. ↑ Altay 1970, p. 350. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFAltay1970 (help)
  63. ↑ Merve Üner (ed.), General Kemal Balıkesir'in Kuvâ-yı Milliye ve İstiklal Savaşı Hatıraları, İstanbul: Post, 2020, p. 113; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "Millî Mücadele Döneminde Manisa", p. 144.
  64. ↑ Merve Üner (ed.), General Kemal Balıkesir'in Hatıraları, 2020, p. 113.
  65. 1 2 Neyzi, Leyla (2008). Remembering Smyrna/Izmir. History and Memory. p. 115.
  66. ↑ Altay, Fahrettin (1970). Görüb Geçirdiklerim-10 YIL SAVAŞ 1912-1922 VE, SONRASI. İstanbul, Türkiye: İnsel Yayınları. p. 350.
  67. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Başbakanlık Cumhuriyet Arşivi (BCA), 272-0-0-12 / MUHACİRİN, 40-40-2-1 to 65/33 (29 January 1923); 40-40-4-1/1 to 9/5; 40-43-14-3/2; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "1922 Manisa Büyük Yangını: Harîk-i Hâil", pp. 235–239.
  68. ↑ Halide Edib, Yakub Kadri, Falih Rıfkı, Mehmed Asım, İzmir'den Bursa'ya, Dersaadet: Akşam-Teşebbüs Matbaası, 1338 (1922).
  69. 1 2 M. Nuri Yörükoğlu, Manisa Yangını, 2002, p. 162; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "1922 Manisa Büyük Yangını", p. 242.
  70. ↑ Nusret Köklü, Manisa Şehir Atlası 5-8 Eylül 1922 Manisa Yangını, İkinci Kitap, 1993; cited in Nejdet Bilgi, "1922 Manisa Büyük Yangını: Harîk-i Hâil", p. 242.
  71. ↑ Records of Proceedings and draft Terms of peace. London, United Kingdom: His Majesty's Stationery Office (HMSO). 1923. pp. 672–682.
  72. ↑ Süleyman Tekir, Selçuk Ural, "Batı Anadolu'da Yunan İşgali ve Aydın Muhacirleri (1919-1920)", CTAD, 13(26), 2017, pp. 125–148.
  73. ↑ Süleyman Tekir, Selçuk Ural, pp. 134–136, 147.
  74. 1 2 Atay, Falih Rıfkı (1984). Çankaya. İstanbul. p. 331.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  75. ↑ ŞEN, Can (2013). "MANISA IN ILHAN BERK'S CHILDHOOD AND YOUTH MEMORIES". Celal Bayar Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. 3 (11): 348–349.

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