Copiapite
A valid IMA mineral species - grandfathered
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About Copiapite
Formula:
Fe2+Fe3+4(SO4)6(OH)2 · 20H2O
Colour:
Crystals: sulfur-yellow to orange, massive material: greenish-yellow to olive-green.
Lustre:
Pearly, Earthy
Hardness:
2½ - 3
Specific Gravity:
2.08 - 2.17
Crystal System:
Triclinic
Member of:
Name:
Named in 1833 for the type locality, near Copiapó city, Chile.
Type Locality:
Copiapite Group.
Typically found as greenish-yellow to olive-green scaly to fine-granular crusts.
Some 'copiapite' may in fact be ferricopiapite or other members of the copiapite group.
One of 3 purely ferrous-ferric sulfate minerals beside bílinite and römerite. Other sulfate minerals having both Fe(II) and Fe(III) in composition are metavoltine, pertlikite, and voltaite.
Typically found as greenish-yellow to olive-green scaly to fine-granular crusts.
Some 'copiapite' may in fact be ferricopiapite or other members of the copiapite group.
One of 3 purely ferrous-ferric sulfate minerals beside bílinite and römerite. Other sulfate minerals having both Fe(II) and Fe(III) in composition are metavoltine, pertlikite, and voltaite.
Unique Identifiers
Mindat ID:
1124
Long-form identifier:
mindat:1:1:1124:8
Similar Names
| Copiapite (of Smith) | A synonym of Fibroferrite |
IMA Classification of Copiapite
Approved, 'Grandfathered' (first described prior to 1959)
IMA Formula:
Fe2+Fe3+4(S6+O4)6(OH)2·20H2O
Classification of Copiapite
7.DB.35
7 : SULFATES (selenates, tellurates, chromates, molybdates, wolframates)
D : Sulfates (selenates, etc.) with additional anions, with H2O
B : With only medium-sized cations; insular octahedra and finite units
7 : SULFATES (selenates, tellurates, chromates, molybdates, wolframates)
D : Sulfates (selenates, etc.) with additional anions, with H2O
B : With only medium-sized cations; insular octahedra and finite units
Dana 7th ed.:
31.10.5.1
31.10.5.1
31 : HYDRATED SULFATES CONTAINING HYDROXYL OR HALOGEN
10 : Miscellaneous
31 : HYDRATED SULFATES CONTAINING HYDROXYL OR HALOGEN
10 : Miscellaneous
25.10.22
25 : Sulphates
10 : Sulphates of Fe alone
25 : Sulphates
10 : Sulphates of Fe alone
Mineral Symbols
As of 2021 there are now IMA–CNMNC approved mineral symbols (abbreviations) for each mineral species, useful for tables and diagrams.
| Symbol | Source | Reference for Standard |
|---|---|---|
| Cpi | IMA–CNMNC | Warr, L.N. (2021). IMA–CNMNC approved mineral symbols. Mineralogical Magazine, 85(3), 291-320. doi:10.1180/mgm.2021.43 |
Physical Properties of Copiapite
Pearly, Earthy
Transparency:
Transparent, Translucent, Opaque
Comment:
Pearly on {010}.
Colour:
Crystals: sulfur-yellow to orange, massive material: greenish-yellow to olive-green.
Streak:
Not reported
Hardness:
2½ - 3 on Mohs scale
Hardness Data:
Measured
Tenacity:
Fragile
Cleavage:
Perfect
on {010}, perfect; on {_101}, imperfect.
on {010}, perfect; on {_101}, imperfect.
Fracture:
Irregular/Uneven, Micaceous
Density:
2.08 - 2.17 g/cm3 (Measured) 2.118 g/cm3 (Calculated)
Comment:
2.147 (Tierra Amarilla material); 2.154 (Chuquicamata material).
Optical Data of Copiapite
Type:
Biaxial (+)
RI values:
nα = 1.506 - 1.54 nβ = 1.528 - 1.549 nγ = 1.575 - 1.6
2V:
Measured: 45° to 74°, Calculated: 48° to 72°
Max. Birefringence:
δ = 0.060 - 0.069
Based on recorded range of RI values above.
Based on recorded range of RI values above.
Interference Colours:
The colours simulate birefringence patterns seen in thin section under crossed polars. They do not take into account mineral colouration or opacity.
Michel-Levy Bar The default colours simulate the birefringence range for a 30 µm thin-section thickness. Adjust the slider to simulate a different thickness.
Grain Simulation You can rotate the grain simulation to show how this range might look as you rotated a sample under crossed polars. Each grain retains its interference colour (retardation) while its brightness falls to black at extinction and reaches a maximum between extinction positions.
The colours simulate birefringence patterns seen in thin section under crossed polars. They do not take into account mineral colouration or opacity.
Michel-Levy Bar The default colours simulate the birefringence range for a 30 µm thin-section thickness. Adjust the slider to simulate a different thickness.
Grain Simulation You can rotate the grain simulation to show how this range might look as you rotated a sample under crossed polars. Each grain retains its interference colour (retardation) while its brightness falls to black at extinction and reaches a maximum between extinction positions.
Surface Relief:
Low (positive)
Relative to Canada balsam mounting medium (n ≈ 1.537).
Relative to Canada balsam mounting medium (n ≈ 1.537).
This shows the grain boundary and Becke line effect under plane-polarised
light, based on the contrast between this mineral's average refractive
index and the mounting medium. It does not take into account mineral
colouration.
In focus
Interference Figure:
This shows the idealized biaxial acute bisectrix (Bxa) interference figure
- the conoscopic view for a grain cut perpendicular to the acute bisectrix, using
this mineral's 2V. The two small white dots mark the melatopes - the points
where the two optic axes emerge - and are shown only when they fall within the
field of view. The coloured bands are isochromatics, and the dark bands are
isogyres.
Rotate the stage: at 0°/90° the isogyres form a cross through the melatopes; at 45° they pull apart into curved hyperbolas. That splitting on rotation - absent in a uniaxial figure - is the standard diagnostic test for telling biaxial minerals from uniaxial ones. If 2V is large, the melatopes may fall outside the field of view, as they often do at the microscope too.
Rotate the stage: at 0°/90° the isogyres form a cross through the melatopes; at 45° they pull apart into curved hyperbolas. That splitting on rotation - absent in a uniaxial figure - is the standard diagnostic test for telling biaxial minerals from uniaxial ones. If 2V is large, the melatopes may fall outside the field of view, as they often do at the microscope too.
Dispersion:
none
Chemistry of Copiapite
Mindat Formula:
Fe2+Fe3+4(SO4)6(OH)2 · 20H2O
Element Weights:
Elements listed:
Common Impurities:
Cu,Ca,Al
Crystallography of Copiapite
Crystal System:
Triclinic
Class (H-M):
1 - Pinacoidal
Space Group:
P1
Cell Parameters:
a = 7.337 Å, b = 18.76 Å, c = 7.379 Å
α = 91.47°, β = 102.18°, γ = 98.95°
α = 91.47°, β = 102.18°, γ = 98.95°
Ratio:
a:b:c = 0.391 : 1 : 0.393
Unit Cell V:
978.91 ų (Calculated from Unit Cell)
Z:
1
Morphology:
Crystals rare, tabular {010}, sometimes highly modified. Commonly found as scaly aggregates or fine-granular encrustations.
Twinning:
Contact twinning with twin axis [101] and composition plane {010}, uncommon.
X-Ray Powder Diffraction
Powder Diffraction Data:
| d-spacing | Intensity |
|---|---|
| 18.4 Å | (100) |
| 9.23 Å | (100) |
| 6.15 Å | (60) |
| 5.57 Å | (70) |
| 5.32 Å | (30) |
| 4.20 Å | (40) |
| 3.58 Å | (60) |
| 3.49 Å | (60) |
Locality:
Geological Environment
Paragenetic Mode(s):
| Paragenetic Mode | Earliest Age (Ga) |
|---|---|
| Stage 7: Great Oxidation Event | <2.4 |
| 45a : [Sulfates, arsenates, selenates, antimonates] | |
| 47a : [Near-surface hydration of prior minerals] | |
| 47b : [Sulfates and sulfites] | |
| Stage 10a: Neoproterozoic oxygenation/terrestrial biosphere | <0.6 |
| 50 : Coal and/or oil shale minerals | <0.36 |
| Stage 10b: Anthropogenic minerals | <10 Ka |
| 54 : Coal and other mine fire minerals (see also #51 and #56) |
Geological Setting:
Areas of pyrite oxidation.
Type Occurrence of Copiapite
Synonyms of Copiapite
Other Language Names for Copiapite
Dutch:Copiapiet
German:Copiapit
Atramenstein
Basisches schwefelsaures Eisenoxyd
Elaeit
Eläit
Ferrocopiapit
Flaveit
Gelb Atrament
Gelbeisenerz (of Breithaupt)
Ihlëite
Janosit
Misleyit
Niveit
Xanthosiderit (of Glocker)
Misy (in part)
Atramenstein
Basisches schwefelsaures Eisenoxyd
Elaeit
Eläit
Ferrocopiapit
Flaveit
Gelb Atrament
Gelbeisenerz (of Breithaupt)
Ihlëite
Janosit
Misleyit
Niveit
Xanthosiderit (of Glocker)
Misy (in part)
Greek:Μισυ
Russian:Копиапит
Simplified Chinese:叶绿矾
Swedish:Gul Atrament Sten
Relationship of Copiapite to other Species
Member of:
Other Members of Copiapite Group:
| Aluminocopiapite | Al2/3Fe3+4(SO4)6(OH)2 · 20H2O | Tric. 1 : P1 |
| Calciocopiapite | CaFe3+4(SO4)6(OH)2 · 20H2O | Tric. 1 : P1 |
| Cuprocopiapite | Cu2+Fe3+4(SO4)6(OH)2 · 20H2O | Tric. 1 : P1 |
| Ferricopiapite | Fe3+0.67Fe3+4(SO4)6(OH)2 · 20H2O | Tric. 1 : P1 |
| Magnesiocopiapite | MgFe3+4(SO4)6(OH)2 · 20H2O | Tric. 1 : P1 |
| Zincocopiapite | ZnFe3+4(SO4)6(OH)2 · 18H2O | Tric. 1 : P1 |
Common Associates
Associations Based on Photo Data:
| 53 photos of Copiapite associated with Botryogen | MgFe3+(SO4)2(OH) · 7H2O |
| 51 photos of Copiapite associated with Halotrichite | Fe2+Al2(SO4)4 · 22H2O |
| 50 photos of Copiapite associated with Coquimbite | AlFe3(SO4)6(H2O)12 · 6H2O |
| 35 photos of Copiapite associated with Chalcanthite | CuSO4 · 5H2O |
| 26 photos of Copiapite associated with Pyrite | FeS2 |
| 22 photos of Copiapite associated with Alunogen | Al2(SO4)3 · 17H2O |
| 21 photos of Copiapite associated with Butlerite | Fe3+(SO4)(OH) · 2H2O |
| 20 photos of Copiapite associated with Melanterite | Fe2+(H2O)6(SO4) · H2O |
| 18 photos of Copiapite associated with Römerite | Fe2+Fe3+2(SO4)4 · 14H2O |
| 17 photos of Copiapite associated with Amarantite | Fe3+2(SO4)2O · 7H2O |
Related Minerals - Strunz-mindat Grouping
| 7.DB.05 | Svyazhinite | (Mg,Mn2+,Ca)(Al,Fe3+)(SO4)2F · 14H2O |
| 7.DB.05 | Aubertite | CuAl(SO4)2Cl · 14H2O |
| 7.DB.05 | Magnesioaubertite | (Mg,Cu)Al(SO4)2Cl · 14H2O |
| 7.DB.10 | Rostite | Al(SO4)(OH) · 5H2O |
| 7.DB.10 | Khademite | Al(SO4)F · 5H2O |
| 7.DB.15 | Jurbanite | Al(SO4)(OH) · 5H2O |
| 7.DB.20 | Minasragrite | (V4+O)(SO4) · 5H2O |
| 7.DB.20 | Anorthominasragrite | (V4+O)(SO4) · 5H2O |
| 7.DB.20 | Orthominasragrite | (V4+O)(SO4) · 5H2O |
| 7.DB.25 | Bobjonesite | (V4+O)(SO4) · 3H2O |
| 7.DB.27 | Karpovite | Tl2VO(SO4)2(H2O) |
| 7.DB.30 | Metahohmannite | Fe3+2(SO4)2O · 4H2O |
| 7.DB.30 | Hohmannite | Fe3+2(SO4)2O · 8H2O |
| 7.DB.30 | Amarantite | Fe3+2(SO4)2O · 7H2O |
| 7.DB.35 | Calciocopiapite | CaFe3+4(SO4)6(OH)2 · 20H2O |
| 7.DB.35 | Zincocopiapite | ZnFe3+4(SO4)6(OH)2 · 18H2O |
| 7.DB.35 | Aluminocopiapite | Al2/3Fe3+4(SO4)6(OH)2 · 20H2O |
| 7.DB.35 | Cuprocopiapite | Cu2+Fe3+4(SO4)6(OH)2 · 20H2O |
| 7.DB.35 | Magnesiocopiapite | MgFe3+4(SO4)6(OH)2 · 20H2O |
| 7.DB.35 | Ferricopiapite | Fe3+0.67Fe3+4(SO4)6(OH)2 · 20H2O |
Other Information
Notes:
Readily soluble in water, forming a yellowish solution.
Health Risks:
No information on health risks for this material has been entered into the database. You should always treat mineral specimens with care.
Internet Links for Copiapite
mindat.org URL:
https://www.mindat.org/min-1124.html
Please feel free to link to this page.
Please feel free to link to this page.
Search Engines:
External Links:
Mineral Dealers:
References for Copiapite
Reference List:
Hausmann, Johann Friedrich Ludwig (1813) Handbuch der Mineralogie (1st ed.). Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht. p.1061 - as Misy
Breithaupt, August (1823) Vollständige Charakteristik des Mineral-Systems (1st ed.). Arnoldischen Buchhandlung.p.238 - as Gelbeisenerz
Haidinger, Wilhelm (1845) Handbuch der bestimmenden Mineralogie, enthaltend die Terminologie, Systematik, Nomenklatur und Charakteristik der Naturgeschichte des Mineralreiches (1st ed.) Braumüller & Seidel, Vienna. p.489
Glocker, Ernst Friedrich (1847) Generum et specierum mineralium, secundum ordines naturales digestorum synopsis, omnium, quotquot adhuc reperta sunt, mineralium nomina complectens [A synopsis of the genera and species of minerals, according to their natural orders, including the names of all the minerals that have yet been discovered.]. Eduardus Anton. 348 pp. p.65 - as Xanthosiderit
Larsen, Esper S. (1921) The microscopic determination of the nonopaque minerals. Bulletin 679. US Geological Survey doi:10.3133/b679 p.61
Posnjak, E.; Merwin, H. E. (1922) The system, Fe2O3—SO3—H2O. Journal Of The American Chemical Society, 44 (9). 1965-1994 doi:10.1021/ja01430a016
Localities for Copiapite
Showing 499 localities.
symbol to view information about a locality.
The Locality List
- This locality has map coordinates listed.
- This locality has estimated coordinates.
ⓘ - Click for references and further information on this occurrence.
? - Indicates mineral may be doubtful at this locality.
- Good crystals or important locality for species.
- World class for species or very significant.
(TL) - Type Locality for a valid mineral species.
(FRL) - First Recorded Locality for everything else (eg varieties).
All localities listed without proper references should be considered as questionable.
Andorra | |
| Valenti Turu and Michels (1992) |
Antarctica | |
| Vennum +1 other reference |
Argentina | |
| Marquez Zavalia (1986) |
| Palache et al. (1951) |
| Perelló et al. (2023) |
Australia | |
| McQueen +2 other references |
| B. G. Lottermoser: P. M. Ashley (1997) |
| B. G. Lottermoser: P. M. Ashley (1997) +1 other reference |
| Basedow (1924) +1 other reference |
| Noble et al. (1983) |
| Noble R.J et al. (1983) |
| |
| Noble et al. (1983) +1 other reference |
| Noble et al. (1983) |
| |
| Bottrill +1 other reference |
| R Bottrill (in prep 2018) |
| R Bottrill unpub. Data |
| R Bottrill unpub. Data | |
| Simpson (1948) |
| Simpson Mineral Collection of the ... |
| Simpson Mineral Collection of the ... | |
| Simpson Mineral Collection of the ... |
| Prider (1944) +1 other reference |
Austria | |
| Niedermayr et al. (1995) |
| Niedermayr et al. (1995) |
| Puttner (1987) +1 other reference |
| Niedermayr et al. (1995) |
| Niedermayr et al. (1995) | |
| Niedermayr et al. (1995) |
| Niedermayr et al. (1995) |
| Hiden (1997) |
| Huber et al. (1977) |
| Goldmann et al. (2008) |
| Goldmann et al. (2008) | |
| Exel (1993) |
| Strasser (1989) |
| Strasser (1989) |
| Strasser (1989) |
| Strasser (1989) | |
| Strasser (2000) |
| Strasser (1989) |
| Strasser (1989) |
| Lewandowski et al. (2006) |
| Strasser (1989) |
| Strasser (1989) | |
| Weissensteiner (1970) |
| Exel (1993) |
| Postl et al. (1996) |
| Pribitzer (1956) +1 other reference |
| Postl et al. (1996) |
| Aufschluss 1972 (SB) |
| Meixner (1958) |
| Exel (1993) |
| Walter et al. (1983) | |
| Reiter (2010) |
Belgium | |
| Mélon et al. (1976) +4 other references |
| Van Tassel (1961) +2 other references |
| Van Tassel (1973) +2 other references |
| ko Jansen. |
| Schoep (1938) +3 other references |
| Schoep (1938) | |
| |
Bolivia | |
| Petrov (n.d.) |
| Petrov (n.d.) | |
| Ahlfeld et al. (1955) |
| Petrov (n.d.) |
Brazil | |
| Silva et al. (2021) |
Bulgaria | |
| Dimitrova +3 other references |
| Sabeva et al. (2017) |
| Atanassova et al. (2009) |
Canada | |
| Schmetzer et al. (1983) |
| Peatfield (n.d.) +1 other reference | |
| Geological Association of Canada (2014) |
| Sabina (1967) |
| Norman Wilson personal collection |
| Zodrow (1980) |
| Gait et al. (1990) |
| Izawa et al. (2011) |
| 156. +1 other reference |
| Sabina (1991) |
| Sabina (1983) |
| Ontario Division of Mines |
Chile | |
| Färber (n.d.) |
| samples analysed by Dr. Tony Kampf | |
| Wet Chemical by Gerhard Möhn | |
| Palache et al. (1951) | |
| Kampf +5 other references | |
| Dana 7:II:457 & 605. | |
| Singer et al. (2008) |
| Bandy (1938) +1 other reference |
| Uwe Kolitsch (SXRD) +3 other references |
| Dana 6:A1:54. |
| Samples analysed by Tony Kampf of LAC ... +1 other reference |
| Kampf et al. (2013) +1 other reference | |
| Kampf et al. (2013) | |
| Rose (1833) |
| Palache et al. (1951) | |
| Lohmeier et al. (2025) | |
| Lohmeier et al. (2022) | |
| Seymour et al. (2025) |
| Chouinard et al. (2005) |
China | |
| Zhaolong Li et al. (1981) |
| Guangzhi Tu et al. (1964) +2 other references |
| Yingxia Xu et al. (2007) |
Costa Rica | |
| Rodríguez et al. (2017) |
| Ulloa et al. (2018) |
Czech Republic | |
| Palache et al. (1951) |
| Jirásek (2001) |
| Hloušek et al. (2002) |
| Scharm +7 other references |
| Kruťa (1958) |
| Vinš V. (1957) |
| Žáček |
| Pašava +7 other references |
| Pelíšek (1979) |
| Robert Vaňo |
| David Parfitt collection |
| Petr Fuchs collection |
France | |
| Laurent (1995) |
| Aimé Rudel : "Curiosités Géologiques ... |
| Queneau (n.d.) |
| G. Demarcq |
| Boisson J.-M. (2022) |
| Delfour (2007) |
| Chauris (2014) |
| Le Roc'h P. () |
| Wittern et al. (1997) |
| Queneau (n.d.) |
| Berbain et al. (2005) |
| Berbain et al. (2005) | |
| Guitard (2010) | |
| Guitard (2010) | |
| Bourgoin et al. (2011) |
| Jean-Luc Portes Collection |
| www.mine-capgaronne.fr (2003) |
Germany | |
| Walenta (1992) |
| Hahn (1991) |
| Walenta (1992) |
| Walenta (1992) | |
| Mangold et al. (11/21) |
| Hanneberg et al. (2009) +1 other reference |
| Schwarzmeier et al. (2015) +2 other references |
| Gerstenberg (n.d.) |
| Schnorrer-Köhler (1991) |
| Palache et al. (1951) +1 other reference | |
| ko Jansen. |
| Ko Jansen collection | |
| Weiß (1990) |
| Schnorrer-Köhler (1991) |
| Henrich (2008) |
| Blaß et al. (1993) +1 other reference |
| Weiß (1990) |
| Weiß (1990) |
| Weiß (1990) |
| Weiß (1990) |
| Schnorrer et al. (1998) |
| Weiß (1990) |
| Wittern (2001) |
| Der Aufschluss Vol.55 |
| Weiß (1990) |
| Weiß (1990) |
| Thomas Kleser Collection / Analyses by ... |
| Thomas Kleser & Erwin Ecker Collections |
| Thomas Kleser Collection & XRD-analysis ... |
| Thalheim +1 other reference |
| Liebeskind et al. (1992) |
Greece | |
| |
| Rieck et al. (2018) | |
| Rieck (n.d.) |
| Schnorrer et al. (1996) +1 other reference |
| Rieck (n.d.) | |
| Rieck (n.d.) |
| www.brgm.fr (2003) |
Greenland | |
| Jakobsen (1989) |
Hungary | |
| |
| Szakáll et al. (2008) | |
| Szakáll: Minerals of Rudabánya +1 other reference |
| Szakáll: Minerals of Rudabánya | |
| Szakáll: Minerals of Rudabánya +1 other reference | |
| Szakáll: Minerals of Rudabánya +1 other reference | |
| HOM Collection 2005 |
| Szakáll et al. (1997) |
| Szakáll et al. (1997) |
| Sándor et al. (2005) |
| Szakáll-Kristály-2018 |
| Szakáll & Gatter: Hun. Min. Spec. +1 other reference |
| Szakáll et al. (1996) | |
| |
| Szakáll et al. (1997) | |
| Szakáll et al. (1997) | |
| |
Indonesia | |
| Scotney et al. (2005) |
Iran | |
| António Manuel Ináçio Martins. |
| Bariand et al. (1973) +1 other reference |
Ireland | |
| de Haller |
| Balassone et al. (2008) |
Italy | |
| Maletto et al. (2016) |
| Del Caldo et al. (1973) |
| D’Angeli et al. (2017) +1 other reference |
| Antofilli et al. (1983) |
| Pelloux (1934) +1 other reference |
| Piccoli et al. (2007) |
| Girolami (2006) | |
| Ciriotti et al. (2019) |
| Ciriotti et al. (2019) | |
| Piccoli et al. (2007) |
| Michele Verdi et al. (2025) +2 other references | |
| Piccoli et al. (2007) | |
| Ara D. et al. (2013) |
| Fernando Caboni et al. (2024) |
| Fernando Caboni et al. (2024) | |
| Garavelli et al. (1996) |
| P.Forti (1994) | |
| Gasparetto et al. (2026) |
| Capperi M. |
| Michele V. (1974) +2 other references |
| Brizzi G. et al. (GR) |
| Bazzoni C. et al. |
| Brizzi G. | |
| Bortolozzi (n.d.) |
| Innocenti F. et al. (Semproniano, Grosseto) |
| Palache et al. (1951) |
| Innocenti et al. (2002) +1 other reference |
| Bonifazi (2020) | |
| Bottachiari et al. (2014) |
| G. D'Achiardi (picroallumogene) |
| De Michele (1974) |
| Manasse (1912) +1 other reference | |
| Sammlung Geol.Führer Band 98 (Elba) +1 other reference |
| Calanchi et al. (1976) |
| L. Rossato | |
| Palache et al. (1951) | |
| Bonifazi (2020) |
| Mauro (2020) |
| Biagioni et al. (2008) +1 other reference | |
| Biagioni (2009) |
| Mauro (2020) |
| Biagioni et al. (2019) +1 other reference |
| Betti et al. (2017) |
| Betti et al. (2017) |
| Sabelli et al. (1984) +1 other reference |
Japan | |
| Yamada (2004) |
| Africano et al. (2000) |
| - (n.d.) |
| - (n.d.) |
Lebanon | |
| Kruszewski (2019) |
Mexico | |
| Megaw (1990) |
| Querol +1 other reference |
| Foshag (1931) +1 other reference |
| King (1981) |
| Morgan (2017) |
Morocco | |
| Hakkou et al. (2008) |
New Zealand | |
| Ko Jansen |
North Macedonia | |
| Percival et al. (1994) |
Norway | |
| Identified by Harald Folvik +1 other reference |
| Neumann (1985) |
| Neumann (1985) |
| Neumann (1985) |
| Nordrum (2012) |
| Neumann (1985) |
| Ellingsen (1989) |
Pakistan | |
| Niazi (2023) |
Peru | |
| Petersen (1970) |
| Tyc et al. (2022) |
| Ciesielczuk et al. (2013) | |
| Tyc et al. (2022) | |
| Frost et al. (2014) |
| Mondillo et al. (2014) |
| Petersen (1970) |
Poland | |
| Cabała et al. (2008) |
| Mochnacka et al. (2015) |
| Balcerzak et al. (1992) | |
| Mochnacka et al. (2015) | |
| Ciesielczukk |
| Wyszomirski (1992) |
| Stepisiewicz (1983) |
Portugal | |
| Flahaut et al. (2018, September) |
| Bobos +3 other references |
| Álvarez-Valero et al. (2008) |
| Rui Nunes' visit in April 2024 |
| Rui Nunes' visit March 2019 | |
| |
| |
| Nunes (n.d.) |
| Sobre a Ocorrência de Copiapite na Orla Meso-Cenozóica Ocidental de Portugal et al. (UNL) | |
| Rui Nunes 16Jan2005 +1 other reference |
| Martins da Pedra collection |
| ko Jansen. |
| Ko Jansen collection |
Romania | |
| Onac (2003) |
| Edited by Szakáll-Kristály (2010) |
| Szakáll et al. (2010) | |
| Apopei et al. (2014) +1 other reference |
| A. Januszewska PXRD data / Januszewska et al. (in preparation) |
Russia | |
| Blinov et al. (2011) |
| Pekov (1998) |
| webmineral.ru (2016) |
| Zhitova et al. (2022) |
| Gas’kova et al. (2008) |
| Bortnikova et al. (2005) |
| Kasatkin et al. (2014) |
Slovakia | |
| |
| Ďuda et al. (2012) |
| Palache et al. (1951) +1 other reference |
| Palache et al. (1951) +1 other reference |
| Koděra (1990) | |
| Ďuďa R. et al. (1985) |
| Duda et al. (1992) |
| Koděra et al. (1986) | |
| Koděra et al. (1986) | |
| Ďuďa |
South Africa | |
| Hugh Heron collection |
| Cairncross et al. (1995) |
| Cairncross et al. (1995) |
| Cairncross et al. (1995) |
Spain | |
| Castro +2 other references |
| Georges FAVREAU collection & EDX ... |
| Navarro et al. (2008) |
| Navarro et al. (2008) | |
| Valente et al. (2013) |
| Valente et al. (2013) | |
| Valente et al. (2013) | |
| Valente et al. (2013) | |
| Shuster et al. (2017) |
| Calvo (1999) |
| Castro et al. (2001) |
| Joan Rosell (2022) |
| Bareche (2005) |
| Mingueza et al. (Min. Catalunya/Paragénesis, 2025) |
| Mata i Perelló (1990) |
| Marc C collection |
| Crespo et al. (2017) |
| Pascual +1 other reference |
Sweden | |
| Sjögren (1895) |
Switzerland | |
| Zanelli et al. (2026) |
| Stalder et al. (1998) |
| Stalder et al. (1998) |
| Ansermet (2012) | |
| Ansermet et al. (2011) |
| Elio Uldry collection |
Thailand | |
| Patrice Queneau Collection First ... |
UK | |
| Day (1999) |
| J.Ralph site visit 2021 |
| Livingstone et al. (1983) |
| Livingstone et al. (1983) |
| Day (1999) |
| |
Ukraine | |
| Alexander I. Tischenko (1996) |
| Möckel et al. (1992) |
| Dobrovolskaya T.I. (2004) |
USA | |
| |
| Anthony et al. (1995) +1 other reference | |
| Luetcke (n.d.) |
| Grant et al. (2005) |
| Merwin et al. (1937) +3 other references |
| Luetcke (n.d.) |
| Bollin et al. (1958) +2 other references |
| Anthony et al. (1995) |
| Granger (1969) +1 other reference |
| David Shannon ID and label |
| Anthony et al. (1995) |
| Anthony et al. (1995) |
| Anderson (1927) +2 other references |
| Howard (1987) +1 other reference |
| Schaller (1903) +5 other references |
| Committee et al. (1989) | |
| Pemberton (1983) +1 other reference |
| Ross (1940a) +4 other references |
| Pemberton (1983) +1 other reference |
| www.mineralsocal.org (1999) | |
| Palache et al. (1951) +1 other reference | |
| U.S. Borax |
| Smith et al. (1958) +2 other references | |
| Becker (1888b) +5 other references |
| Cooper et al. (1989) |
| Eakle (1903a) +2 other references |
| Schairer et al. (1924) +1 other reference |
| part 2 +5 other references |
| Petrov (n.d.) |
| Cooper et al. (1986) |
| Kinkel et al. (1956) +4 other references |
| Jamieson et al. (2005) | |
| Palache et al. (1951) +4 other references |
| USGS PP 1017 (Lovering,1978) |
| Eckel et al. (1997) |
| Eckel et al. (1997) |
| Eckel et al. (1997) |
| Eckel et al. (1997) |
| Eckel et al. (1997) | |
| Eckel et al. (1997) | |
| Eckel et al. (1997) | |
| Eckel et al. (1997) | |
| Eckel et al. (1997) |
| Eckel et al. (1997) |
| U.S. Geological Survey Professional ... |
| Eckel et al. (1997) |
| Eckel et al. (1997) |
| Januzzi et al. (1976) |
| Schooner (1961) |
| Schairer (1931) +1 other reference | |
| Januzzi et al. (1976) |
| Januzzi et al. (1976) |
| Collected by Julian Gray 21 September ... |
| Hon et al. (2009) |
| Erd et al. (1960) | |
| Erd et al. (1960) |
| Erd et al. (1960) |
| Erd et al. (1960) |
| Paul J. Horick (1974) |
| Anderson (1994) | |
| Goldstein (2006) |
| Goldstein (2006) |
| Goldstein (2006) |
| Goldstein (2006) |
| Goldstein (2006) |
| |
| Morrill & Hinckley |
| King (n.d.) |
| www.irocks.com (2020) |
| Cerato |
| Heinrich et al. (2004) |
| Sherwood et al. (1998) |
| Sherwood et al. (1998) | |
| Sherwood et al. (1998) |
| Sherwood et al. (1998) |
| Sherwood et al. (1998) |
| Sherwood et al. (1998) | |
| Sherwood et al. (1998) |
| Sherwood et al. (1998) |
| Sherwood et al. (1998) |
| Sherwood et al. (1998) | |
| Sherwood et al. (1998) | |
| Sherwood et al. (1998) |
| Guilbert and Zeihen 1964 +1 other reference |
| Chemical Geology Volume 215 |
| Robert Matthew Joeckel et al. (2007) |
| Robert Matthew Joeckel et al. (2007) |
| Castor et al. (2004) |
| Castor et al. (2004) |
| Castor et al. (2004) |
| Castor et al. (2004) |
| Bowell et al. (2005) |
| Castor et al. (2004) |
| Palache et al. (1951) +1 other reference |
| Castor et al. (2004) |
| Palache et al. (1951) +1 other reference |
| P. Cristofono collection |
| Rocks & Min 80:256 |
| Nashua Min Soc. Disp. Cat. 1995 | |
| Northrop et al. (1996) |
| Northrop et al. (1996) |
| Peter Zodac +1 other reference |
| Carlson (2015) |
| King (n.d.) |
| Ernest H. Carlson. Jerret Whitford. ... | |
| gsa.confex.com (2002) |
| Carlson (2015) |
| Carlson (2015) |
| U.S. Geological Survey/ U.s. Department ... |
| Robert C. Smith II (1978) |
| |
| Roberts et al. (1965) |
| Flohr et al. (1995) +1 other reference |
| Smith (1991) |
| Smith (1991) | |
| Smith (1991) | |
| |
| Smith (1991) |
| Rocks & Min. +1 other reference | |
| ... | |
| Bullock (1981) |
| Rosenzweig et al. (1955) +1 other reference | |
| DANA R. KELLEY AND PAUL F. KERR (1958) | |
| Bullock (1981) |
| Excalibur Mineral Co. microprobe ... +1 other reference |
| Thorne (n.d.) +1 other reference |
| Thorne (n.d.) |
| Bullock (1981) |
| Piatak et al. (2004) |
| Dietrich (1990) |
| Dietrich (1990) | |
| Dietrich (1990) |
| Dietrich (1990) | |
| Dietrich (1990) | |
| Dietrich (1990) |
| Rocks&Min. 47:596 (1972) |
| Dietrich (1990) |
| Dietrich (1990) |
| Dietrich (1990) |
| Dietrich (1990) |
| Dietrich (1990) | |
| Rye et al. (2003) |
| Cannon (1975) |
| Rocks & Min. Vol. 73 (1998) |
Mars | |
| Farrand et al. (2014) |
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Plaka Sulfate Locality II, Plaka Mines, Plaka, Lavreotiki, East Attica, Attica, Greece