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Daga Wikipedia, Insakulofidiya ta kyauta.
ikonomi
academic discipline (en) Fassara, academic major (en) Fassara da field of study (en) Fassara
Bayanai
Ƙaramin ɓangare naKimiyyar zamantakewa
Bangare naeconomic and social sciences (en) Fassara da Kimiyyar zamantakewa
Is the study of (en) Fassaratattalin arziki, good/s (en) Fassara da service (en) Fassara
Karatun taKimiyyar zamantakewa
Hashtag (mul) FassaraEconomics
Has characteristic (en) Fassaraeconomics terminology (en) Fassara, faculty of economics (en) Fassara da economics award (en) Fassara
Tarihin maudu'ihistory of economic thought (en) Fassara da economic history (en) Fassara
GudanarwanMai tattala arziki, professor of economics (en) Fassara, Candidate of Economic Sciences (en) Fassara, Doctor of Economics (en) Fassara da Doctor of Economics (en) Fassara
Entry in abbreviations table (en) FassaraEko
Stack Exchange site URL (en) Fassarahttps://economics.stackexchange.com

Tattalin Arziki (/ˌɛkəˈnɒmɪks, ˌiːkə-/) [1] kimiyya ce ta zamantakewa wacce ke nazarin samarwa, rarraba, da amfani da kayayyaki da ayyuka. [2]

tattalin arziki yana mai da hankali kan halayyar da hulɗar jami'an tattalin arziki da kuma yadda tattalin arziki ke aiki. Microeconomics yana nazarin abin da ake kallo a matsayin muhimman abubuwan tattalin arziki, gami da wakilan mutum da kasuwanni, hulɗar su, da kuma sakamakon waɗannan hulɗar. Kowane wakili na iya haɗawa da gidaje, kamfanoni, masu siye, da masu siyarwa. Macroeconomics yana nazarin tattalin arziki a matsayin tsarin inda samarwa, rarraba, kamfani, tanadi, da kashe hannun jari ke hulɗa; da kuma abubuwan samarwa da ke shafar su, ƙasar: aiki, babban birnin, ƙasa, da kasuwanci, hauhawar farashi, Ci gaban tattalin arziki, da Manufofin jama'a waɗanda ke tasiri ga waɗannan abubuwa. Har ila yau, yana neman nazarin da kuma bayyana Tattalin arzikin duniya.

Sauran bambance-bambance masu yawa a cikin tattalin arziki sun haɗa da waɗanda ke tsakanin Tattalin Arziki mai kyau, suna kwatanta "abin da yake", da kuma tattalin arziki na ka'idoji, suna ba da shawarar "abin da ya kamata ya kasance"; tsakanin ka'idar tattalin arziki da tattalin arziki mai amfani; tsakanin tattalin arziki na tunani da halayyar; da kuma tsakanin tattalin arziki da kuma tattalin arzikin al'ada.

Economic analysis can be applied throughout society, including business, finance, cybersecurity,[3] health care,[4] engineering and government. It is also applied to such diverse subjects as crime, education,[5] the family,[6] feminism,[7] law, philosophy, politics, religion,[8] social institutions, war,[9] science, and the environment.

Ma'anar tattalin arziki

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Kalmar farko don horo ita ce "Tattalin arzikin siyasa", amma tun daga ƙarshen karni na 19, ana kiranta "tattalin arziki". Kalmar ta samo asali ne daga Tsohon Girkanci οἰκονομία (oikonomia), kalma ce don "hanyar (nomos) don gudanar da gida (oikos) ", ko a wasu kalmomi ilimin wani οἰκονομικός (oikonomikos), ko "gidan gida ko manajan gida". Kalmomin da aka samo kamar "tattalin arziki" saboda haka sau da yawa suna nufin "karin kuɗi" ko "mai tsada". [10][11] Ta hanyar fadadawa a lokacin, "tattalin arzikin siyasa" ita ce hanyar gudanar da polis ko jihar.

Akwai ma'anoni daban-daban na zamani na tattalin arziki; wasu suna nuna ra'ayoyin canzawa game da batun ko ra'ayoyi daban-daban tsakanin ma'anar tattalin arziki.[12] Masanin falsafa na Scotland Adam Smith (1776) ya bayyana abin da ake kira Tattalin arzikin siyasa a matsayin "bincike kan yanayin da abubuwan da ke haifar da arzikin kasashe", musamman kamar haka:

wadata-linkid="368" href="./Jean-Baptiste_Say" id="mw1g" rel="mw:WikiLink" title="Jean-Baptiste Say">Jean-Baptiste Say (1803), ya bambanta batun daga amfani da Manufofin jama'a, ya bayyana shi a matsayin kimiyya na samarwa, rarrabawa, da amfani da dukiya.[13] A gefen satirical, Thomas Carlyle (1849) ya kirkiro "kimiyya mai banƙyama" a matsayin ma'anar tattalin arziki na gargajiya, a cikin wannan mahallin, wanda aka haɗa shi da nazarin rashin jin daɗi na Malthus (1798). John Stuart Mill (1844) ya kara iyakance batun:   Alfred Marshall ya ba da ma'anar da aka ambata a cikin littafinsa Principles of Economics (1890) wanda ya faɗaɗa bincike fiye da wadata kuma daga al'umma zuwa matakin microeconomic:

Lionel Robbins (1932) ya haɓaka tasirin abin da ake kira "[watakila mafi yawan ma'anar yanzu game da batun": [12][p]

Robbins ya bayyana ma'anar a matsayin ba rarrabuwa ba a cikin "karɓar wasu nau'ikan halayyar" amma a maimakon haka nazari a cikin "mai da hankali kan wani bangare na halayyar, nau'in da tasirin ƙarancin ya sanya.[ing][35] Ya tabbatar da cewa masana tattalin arziki na baya yawanci sun mayar da hankali ga karatunsu kan nazarin dukiya: yadda ake kirkirar dukiya (samarwa), rarraba, da cinyewa; da kuma yadda dukiya za ta iya girma.[36]Amma ya ce ana iya amfani da tattalin arziki don nazarin wasu abubuwa, kamar yaƙi, waɗanda ke waje da mayar da hankali ga al'ada. Wannan shi ne saboda yaƙi yana da burinsa ya ci nasara (a matsayin Ƙarshen da ake nema), yana haifar da farashi da fa'idodi, kuma yana amfani da albarkatun (rayuwar ɗan adam da sauran farashi) don cimma burin. Idan ba za a iya cin nasarar yaƙin ba ko kuma idan farashin da ake tsammani ya wuce fa'idodi, masu yanke shawara (idan sun kasance masu hankali) bazai taɓa zuwa yaƙi ba (ƙaddamarwa) amma a maimakon haka bincika wasu hanyoyin. Ba za a iya bayyana tattalin arziki a matsayin kimiyya da ke nazarin wadata, yaƙi, aikata laifuka, ilimi, da kowane bangare wanda za'a iya amfani da nazarin tattalin arziki ba, amma a matsayin kimiyya wanda ke nazarin wani bangare na kowa na kowane ɗayan waɗannan batutuwa (dukansu suna amfani da albarkatu kaɗan don cimma ƙarshen da ake nema).

Wasu maganganun da suka biyo baya sun soki ma'anar kamar yadda ta wuce gona da iri, ta kasa iyakance iyakar ikonta ga nazarin kasuwa. Daga shekarun 1960, duk da haka, irin waɗannan maganganun sun ragu yayin da ka'idar tattalin arziki na haɓaka halayyar da ƙirar zaɓi mai ma'ana ya faɗaɗa yankin batun zuwa yankunan da aka bi da su a wasu fannoni. Akwai wasu zarge-zarge kuma, kamar a cikin ƙarancin ba lissafin tattalin arzikin macroeconomics na rashin aikin yi ba.

Gary Becker, mai ba da gudummawa ga fadada tattalin arziki zuwa sababbin yankuna, ya bayyana hanyar da ya fi so a matsayin "haɗuwa da] zato na haɓaka halayyar, ƙa'idodin ɗorewa, da daidaitattun kasuwa, ana amfani da su ba tare da jinkiri ba. "Ɗaya daga cikin sharhin ya nuna cewa wannan magana tana mai da tattalin arziki a matsayin hanyar da ba batun ba amma tare da cikakken bayani game da "tsarin zabi da nau'in hulɗar zamantakewa wanda [irin] bincike ya haɗa da shi. "Wannan tushen yana nazarin ma'anoni da yawa da aka samo a cikin ka'idodin litattafan tattalin arziki kuma ya kammala cewa rashin yarjejeniya ba ya buƙatar shafar batun da matani ke bi. Daga cikin masana tattalin arziki gabaɗaya, yana jayayya cewa wani ma'anar da aka gabatar na iya nuna hanyar da marubucin ya yi imanin cewa tattalin arziki yana tasowa, ko ya kamata ya samo asali.[12]

Masana tattalin arziki da yawa ciki har da wadanda suka lashe kyautar Nobel James M. Buchanan da Ronald Coase sun ki amincewa da ma'anar Robbins kuma suna ci gaba da ma'anonin da suka fi so kamar na Say, dangane da batun batun. Ha-Joon Chang misali ya yi jayayya cewa ma'anar Robbins za ta sa tattalin arziki ta zama ta musamman saboda duk sauran kimiyyar sun bayyana kansu dangane da yankin bincike ko abu na bincike maimakon hanyar. A cikin sashen ilmin halitta, ba a ce ya kamata a yi nazarin dukkan ilmin halitta tare da nazarin DNA ba. Mutane suna nazarin kwayoyin halitta masu rai a hanyoyi daban-daban: wasu suna yin nazarin DNA, wasu suna nazarin jikin mutum, kuma har yanzu wasu suna gina tsarin wasan kwaikwayo na halayyar dabba. Amma duk ana kiransu ilmin halitta saboda duk suna nazarin halittu masu rai. A cewar Ha Joon Chang, wannan ra'ayi cewa tattalin arziki na iya kuma ya kamata a yi nazari a hanya ɗaya kawai (alal misali ta hanyar nazarin zaɓuɓɓuka masu ma'ana kawai), kuma ci gaba da mataki ɗaya kuma sake bayyana tattalin arziki a matsayin ka'idar komai, na musamman ne.[14]

Tarihin tunanin tattalin arziki

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Daga zamanin d ̄ a ta hanyar physiocrats

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A seaport with a ship arriving
Hoton 1638 na tashar jiragen ruwa ta Faransa a lokacin da aka fara Kasuwanci

Tambayoyi game da rarraba albarkatu ana samun su a cikin rubuce-rubucen mawaki na Boeotian Hesiod kuma masana tarihi da yawa na tattalin arziki sun bayyana shi a matsayin "masanin tattalin arziki na farko". Koyaya, an yi amfani da kalmar Helenanci oikos don batutuwan da suka shafi yadda za a gudanar da iyali (wanda aka fahimta a matsayin mai mallakar ƙasa, iyalinsa, da bayinsa) maimakon komawa ga wasu tsarin al'umma na rarraba albarkatu, wanda shine sabon abu na baya-bayan nan.[15][16] Kodayake Xenophon, marubucin Oeconomicus, masanan ilimin lissafi sun yaba da shi a matsayin tushen kalmar "tattalin arziki", malaman zamani galibi suna yaba da Aristotle a matsayin marubucin farko da ya rubuta game da tattalin arziki a wasu wurare da aka warwatsa, musamman a cikin Nicomachean Ethics, inda ake tattauna batun amfani da darajar musayar. [17] Joseph Schumpeter ya bayyana marubutan ilimi na ƙarni na 16 da 17, ciki har da Tomás de Mercado, Luis de Molina, da Juan de Lugo, a matsayin "da ke kudi da kowane rukuni don kasancewa 'masu kafa' tattalin arzikin kimiyya" game da ka'idar kuɗi, sha'awa, da darajar a cikin hangen nesa na doka ta halitta.

Ƙungiyoyi biyu, waɗanda daga baya aka kira su "masu kasuwanci" da "masu ilimin jiki", sun fi tasiri kai tsaye ga ci gaban batun. Dukkanin kungiyoyin suna da alaƙa da haɓaka kishin kasa na tattalin arziki da jari-hujja na zamani a Turai. Kasuwanci koyarwar tattalin arziki ce wacce ta bunƙasa daga ƙarni na 16 zuwa 18 a cikin wallafe-wallafen wallafe-walfe, ko na 'yan kasuwa ko' yan siyasa. Ya yi imanin cewa arzikin al'umma ya dogara da tarin zinariya da azurfa. Al'ummai ba tare da samun damar samun ma'adinai ba za su iya samun zinariya da azurfa ta hanyar kasuwanci kawai ta hanyar sayar da kayayyaki a kasashen waje da kuma hana shigo da zinariya da Azurfa. Koyarwar ta yi kira ga shigo da albarkatun kasa masu arha don kayan masana'antu don fitarwa, da kuma tsarin mulki na jihar don sanya haraji kariya akan kayan masana'antun kasashen waje da kuma hana masana'antu a cikin yankuna.

Physiocrats, ƙungiyar masu tunani da marubuta na Faransa na ƙarni na 18, sun haɓaka ra'ayin tattalin arziki a matsayin hanyar samun kudin shiga da fitarwa. Physiocrats sun yi imanin cewa samar da aikin gona ne kawai ya haifar da wadataccen farashi, don haka noma shine tushen duk dukiya.[18] Don haka, sun yi adawa da manufofin mercantilist na inganta masana'antu da kasuwanci a kan kudin noma, gami da harajin shigo da kayayyaki. Physiocrats sun ba da shawarar maye gurbin karbar haraji mai tsada tare da haraji guda ɗaya akan kudin shiga na masu mallakar ƙasa. A mayar da martani game da ka'idojin kasuwanci masu yawa, 'yan wasan sun ba da shawarar manufofin laissez-faire, wanda ya yi kira ga ƙananan shiga tsakani na gwamnati a cikin tattalin arziki.

Adam Smith (1723-1790) ya kasance masanin ilimin tattalin arziki na farko. Smith ya soki masu kasuwanci sosai amma ya bayyana tsarin physiocratic "tare da duk ajizancinsa" a matsayin "watakila mafi kyawun kusanci ga gaskiyar da aka buga" a kan batun.

Tattalin arzikin siyasa na gargajiya

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Picture of Adam Smith facing to the right
Buga littafin Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations a cikin 1776 an dauke shi a matsayin tsari na farko na tunanin tattalin arziki.

An bayyana littafin Adam Smith mai suna The Wealth of Nations a shekara ta 1776 a matsayin "haihuwar tattalin arziki a matsayin horo daban".Littafin ya gano ƙasa, aiki, da babban birnin a matsayin abubuwa uku na samarwa da manyan masu ba da gudummawa ga arzikin al'umma, ya bambanta da ra'ayi na physiocratic cewa aikin gona ne kawai ke da amfani.[55]

Smith ya tattauna fa'idodi masu yuwuwa na ƙwarewa ta hanyar rarraba ma'aikata, gami da haɓaka yawan aiki da riba daga kasuwanci, ko tsakanin gari da ƙasa ko a duk faɗin ƙasashe.[19] "Theorem" nasa cewa "rabuwa da aiki yana iyakance ta girman kasuwa" an bayyana shi a matsayin "babban ka'idar ayyukan kamfanoni da masana'antu" da kuma "babban ƙa'idar tsarin tattalin arziki".[20]Ga Smith kuma an danganta shi "mafi mahimmancin ra'ayi a duk tattalin arziki" da kuma tushe na ka'idar rarraba albarkatun - cewa, a karkashin gasa, masu mallakar albarkatu (na aiki, ƙasa, da kuma babban birnin) suna neman amfanin su mafi fa'ida, wanda ke haifar da daidaituwa dawowa ga duk amfani a cikin daidaito (wanda aka daidaita don bambance-bambance da ke fitowa daga irin waɗannan dalilai kamar horo da rashin aikin yi). [21]

A cikin wata gardama da ta haɗa da "ɗaya daga cikin shahararrun wurare a duk tattalin arziki," Smith yana wakiltar kowane mutum kamar yadda yake ƙoƙarin amfani da duk wani babban birnin da za su iya ba da umarni don amfanin kansu, ba na al'umma ba, kuma don samun riba, wanda ya zama dole a wasu matakan don amfani da babban birnin a masana'antar cikin gida, kuma yana da alaƙa da darajar kayan aiki.[59][lower-alpha 1][61]A cikin wannan:

Reverend Thomas Robert Malthus (1798) ya yi amfani da manufar raguwar dawowa don bayyana yanayin rayuwa. Yawan mutane, ya yi jayayya, ya karu da lissafi, ya wuce samar da abinci, wanda ya karu da ƙididdiga. Matsi na yawan jama'a da ke ƙaruwa cikin sauri a kan iyakantaccen ƙasa ya haifar da raguwar dawowar aiki. Sakamakon, ya yi iƙirarin, ya kasance ƙananan albashi, wanda ya hana yanayin rayuwa ga mafi yawan jama'a daga tashi sama da matakin rayuwa. [mahimmanci ba ne ake buƙata] Masanin tattalin arziki Julian Simon ya soki ƙaddamarwar Malthus.  

Yayinda Adam Smith ya jaddada samarwa da samun kudin shiga, David Ricardo (1817) ya mai da hankali kan rarraba kudin shiga tsakanin masu mallakar ƙasa, ma'aikata, da masu jari-hujja. Ricardo ya ga rikici tsakanin masu mallakar ƙasa, a gefe guda, da ma'aikata da babban birnin, a gefe ɗaya. Ya nuna cewa karuwar yawan jama'a da babban birnin, yana matsawa kan wadatar ƙasa, yana tura haya kuma yana riƙe da albashi da riba. Ricardo kuma shine na farko da ya bayyana kuma ya tabbatar da ka'idar fa'ida ta kwatanta, bisa ga abin da kowace ƙasa ya kamata ta ƙware wajen samarwa da fitar da kayayyaki wanda ke da ƙarancin farashi na samarwa, maimakon dogaro da samar da kanta kawai. An kira shi "bayani na asali" don samun riba daga kasuwanci.

Da yake zuwa a ƙarshen al'adar gargajiya, John Stuart Mill (1848) ya raba kamfanin tare da masana tattalin arziki na gargajiya na baya game da rashin yiwuwar rarraba tsarin kasuwa na samun kudin shiga. Mill ya nuna bambanci tsakanin matsayi biyu na kasuwa: rarraba albarkatu da rarraba kudin shiga. Kasuwar na iya zama mai inganci wajen rarraba albarkatu, amma ba a rarraba kudaden shiga ba, ya rubuta, yana mai da shi ya zama dole ga al'umma ta shiga tsakani.

Ka'idar darajar tana da mahimmanci a cikin ka'idar gargajiya. Smith ya rubuta cewa "farashin gaske na kowane abu ... shine aiki da matsala na samun shi".  Smith ya ci gaba da cewa, tare da haya da riba, wasu farashi ban da albashi suma sun shiga farashin kayan masarufi.[68]Sauran masana tattalin arziki na gargajiya sun gabatar da bambance-bambance akan Smith, wanda ake kira 'ka'idar aiki na darajar'. Tattalin arzikin gargajiya ya mayar da hankali kan halin kowane tattalin arzikin kasuwa don daidaitawa a cikin wani matsayi na ƙarshe wanda ya ƙunshi adadi na yau da kullun na dukiyar jiki (babban birni) da kuma yawan jama'a.

Tattalin arzikin Marxian

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Photograph of Karl Marx facing the viewer
Karyatawar Marxist game da tattalin arzikin siyasa ya fito ne daga aikin masanin falsafar Jamus Karl Marx .

Tattalin arzikin Marxist (daga baya, Marxian) ya fito ne daga tattalin arzikin gargajiya, kuma ya samo asali ne daga aikin Karl Marx. An buga kundi na farko na babban aikin Marx, Das Kapital, a 1867. Marx ya mayar da hankali kan ka'idar aiki na darajar da ka'idar ƙimar da ta wuce gona da iri. Marx ya rubuta cewa su hanyoyin da babban birnin ke amfani da su don cin zarafin ma'aikata. Ka'idar darajar ma'aikata ta tabbatar da cewa darajar kayan musayar an ƙayyade ta hanyar aikin da ya shiga cikin samar da shi, kuma ka'idar ƙimar da ta wuce ta nuna yadda aka biya ma'aikata kawai wani rabo na darajar da aikin su ya kirkira.

Karl Kautsky (1854-1938) ya ci gaba da bunkasa tattalin arzikin Marxian The Economic Doctrines of Karl Marx and The Class Struggle (Erfurt Program), Rudolf Hilferding's (1877-1941) Finance Capital, Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924) 's The Development of Capitalism in Russia and Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism, da Rosa Luxemburg (1871-1919) 's The Accumulation of Capital.

Tattalin arzikin Neoclassical

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A farkonsa a matsayin kimiyyar zamantakewa, Jean-Baptiste Say ya bayyana tattalin arziki kuma ya tattauna shi a cikin littafinsa mai suna Treatise on Political Economy ko, The Production, Distribution, and Consumption of Wealth (1803) a matsayin nazarin samarwa, rarrabawa, da amfani da dukiya. Wadannan abubuwa uku an dauke su ne kawai dangane da karuwa ko raguwar dukiya, kuma ba dangane da hanyoyin kisa ba.[lower-alpha 2] Ma'anar Say ta tsira a wani bangare har zuwa yanzu, an gyara ta hanyar maye gurbin kalmar "dukiya" don "kayayyaki da aiyuka" ma'ana cewa dukiya na iya haɗawa da abubuwan da ba kayan abu ba. Shekaru ɗari da talatin bayan haka, Lionel Robbins ya lura cewa wannan ma'anar ba ta isa ba, saboda masana tattalin arziki da yawa suna yin amfani da ka'idoji da falsafar a wasu fannoni na ayyukan ɗan adam.[lower-alpha 3] A cikin Essay on the Nature and Significance of Economic Science, ya ba da shawarar ma'anar tattalin arziki a matsayin nazarin halayyar ɗan adam, wanda ke ƙarƙashin ƙarancin ƙarancin, wanda ke tilasta wa mutane zaɓar, rarraba albarkatun da ba su da yawa ga ƙarshen gasa, da tattalin arziki (neman mafi girman jin daɗi yayin guje wa ɓata albarkatun ƙarancin).[lower-alpha 4] A cewar Robbins: "Tattalin Arziki shine kimiyya wanda ke nazarin halayyar ɗan adam a matsayin dangantaka tsakanin iyaka da ƙananan hanyoyin da ke da madadin amfani".[35]Ma'anar Robbins ta ƙarshe ta zama karɓa ta manyan masana tattalin arziki, kuma ta sami hanyar shiga cikin litattafan yanzu. Kodayake ba tare da haɗin kai ba, yawancin masana tattalin arziki na yau da kullun za su yarda da wasu ma'anar Robbins, duk da cewa mutane da yawa sun tayar da mummunar ƙiyayya ga iyakar da hanyar tattalin arziki, wanda ya fito daga wannan ma'anar.[72]

Wani rukuni na ka'idar da daga baya aka kira "tattalin arzikin neoclassical" an kafa shi daga kimanin 1870 zuwa 1910. Kalmar "tattalin arziki" ta shahara ne daga masana tattalin arziki na neoclassical kamar su Alfred Marshall da Mary Paley Marshall a matsayin taƙaitaccen ma'anar "kimiyya ta tattalin arziki" da kuma maye gurbin "Tattalin arzikin siyasa" na baya. [10] [11] Wannan ya dace da tasirin da aka yi amfani da shi a fannin kimiyyar halitta.

Tattalin arzikin Neoclassical ya haɗa wadata da buƙata a matsayin haɗin gwiwar farashin da yawa a cikin daidaitattun kasuwa, don haka yana rinjayar rabon fitarwa da rarraba kuɗin shiga. Ya ki amincewa da ka'idar aiki ta tattalin arziki na gargajiya don tallafawa ka'idar amfani mai amfani a gefen buƙata da kuma ka'idar farashi mai zurfi a gefen wadata. A cikin karni na 20, masu ilimin neoclassical sun tashi daga ra'ayin da ya gabata wanda ya ba da shawarar auna cikakken amfani ga al'umma, suna zaɓar amfani na yau da kullun, wanda ke nuna alaƙar halayyar mutum a tsakanin mutane.[23]

A cikin microeconomics, tattalin arziki neoclassical yana wakiltar karfafawa da farashi kamar yadda yake taka muhimmiyar rawa wajen tsara yanke shawara. Misali na nan da nan na wannan shine ka'idar mabukaci na buƙatun mutum, wanda ke ware tasirin farashi (a matsayin farashi) da samun kudin shiga akan adadin da ake buƙata.[23] A cikin macroeconomics an nuna shi a cikin farkon kuma mai dorewa neoclassical kira tare da Keynesian macroeconomiics. [23]

Tattalin arzikin Neoclassical ana kiransa tattalin arzikin Orthodox a wasu lokuta ta hanyar masu sukar sa da masu tausayi. tattalin arziki zamani ya gina a kan tattalin arzikin neoclassical amma tare da gyare-gyare da yawa waɗanda ko dai sun kara ko kuma sun haɗa da bincike na baya, kamar su econometrics, ka'idar wasan, nazarin gazawar kasuwa da gasa mara kyau, da kuma Tsarin neoclassical na ci Babban tattalin arziki don nazarin masu canji na dogon lokaci da ke shafar kudaden shiga na ƙasa.

Tattalin arzikin Neoclassical yana nazarin halayyar mutane, Gidaje, da kungiyoyi (wanda ake kira 'yan wasan tattalin arziki, 'yan wasa, ko wakilai) lokacin da suke sarrafawa ko amfani da albarkatun da ba su da yawa, waɗanda ke da madadin amfani, don cimma burin da ake so. Ana zaton wakilai suna aiki da hankali, suna da manufofi masu yawa a gani, iyakantaccen albarkatu don samun waɗannan manufofi, saitin ƙa'idodin ƙa'idodi, ainihin manufa mai jagora, da kuma ikon yin zaɓi. Akwai matsala ta tattalin arziki, wanda ke ƙarƙashin binciken kimiyyar tattalin arziki, lokacin da ɗaya ko fiye da 'yan wasa suka yanke shawara (zaɓin) don samun sakamako mafi kyau.[24]

Tattalin arzikin Keynesian

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Black-and-white head shot of Keynes
John Maynard Keynes, wanda ake la'akari da "mahaifin tattalin arziki"

Tattalin arzikin Keynesian ya samo asali ne daga John Maynard Keynes, musamman littafinsa The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money (1936), wanda ya gabatar da tattalin arzikin zamani a matsayin wani yanki na musamman. Littafin ya mayar da hankali kan abubuwan da ke ƙayyade kudin shiga na ƙasa a cikin ɗan gajeren lokaci lokacin da farashin ba su da sauƙin sauyawa. Keynes ya yi ƙoƙari ya bayyana, a cikin cikakkun ka'idoji, dalilin da ya sa rashin aikin yi a kasuwar ma'aikata ba zai iya gyara kansa ba saboda ƙananan "bukatar tasiri" da kuma dalilin da ya ya sa har ma da sassauci na farashi da manufofin kuɗi bazai zama marasa amfani. An yi amfani da kalmar "juyin juya hali" ga littafin a cikin tasirinsa akan nazarin tattalin arziki.

A cikin shekarun da suka biyo baya, masana tattalin arziki da yawa sun bi ra'ayoyin Keynes kuma sun fadada ayyukansa. John Hicks da Alvin Hansen sun haɓaka samfurin IS-LM, tsari mai sauƙi na wasu abubuwan da Keynes ya fahimta game da daidaitattun tattalin arziki na ɗan gajeren lokaci. Franco Modigliani da James Tobin sun haɓaka mahimman ra'ayoyi na amfani da masu zaman kansu da saka hannun jari, bi da bi, manyan abubuwa biyu na buƙatun buƙata. Lawrence Klein ya gina samfurin farko na macroeconometric, yana amfani da tunanin Keynesian a hankali ga Tattalin arzikin Amurka.

Tattalin arzikin bayan Yaƙin Duniya na II

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Nan da nan bayan Yaƙin Duniya na II, tattalin arzikin Keynesian shine babban ra'ayi na tattalin arziki na kafa Amurka da abokanta, kuma tattalin arzikin Marxian shine babban ra-ayi na tattalin arzikin Soviet Union da abokanta.

Cinikin kuɗi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Milton Friedman

Monetarism ya fito ne a cikin shekarun 1950 da 1960, tare da Milton Friedman a matsayin jagoran ilimi. Masu adawa da kudi sun yi jayayya cewa manufofin kudi da sauran girgizar kudi, kamar yadda aka wakilta ta hanyar ci gaban hannun jari, sun kasance muhimmiyar dalilin sauye-sauyen tattalin arziki, kuma saboda haka manufofin kudi sun fi muhimmanci fiye da manufofin kasafin kudi don dalilai na daidaitawa.[25] Friedman ya kuma yi shakku game da ikon bankunan tsakiya don gudanar da manufofin kuɗi masu aiki a aikace, yana ba da shawara a maimakon haka ta amfani da dokoki masu sauƙi kamar ci gaban kuɗi.

Tsarin kuɗi ya yi fice a shekarun 1970 da 1980, lokacin da manyan bankunan tsakiya da dama suka rungumi manufofin kuɗi da suka yi tasiri ga tsarin kuɗi, amma daga baya aka yi watsi da su saboda sakamakon bai gamsar ba. [26]

Sabon tattalin arziki na gargajiya

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Wani kalubale mai mahimmanci ga tsarin Keynesian ya fito ne a cikin 1970s daga sabbin masana tattalin arziki na gargajiya kamar Robert Lucas, Thomas Sargent, da Edward Prescott. Sun gabatar da ra'ayin tsammanin tunani a cikin tattalin arziki, wanda ke da tasiri mai zurfi ga tattaunawar tattalin arziki da yawa, gami da abin da ake kira Lucas critic da ci gaban ainihin tsarin sake zagayowar kasuwanci.

Sabbin Keynesians

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A cikin shekarun 1980s, wani rukuni na masu bincike sun zama sanannun masana tattalin arziki na New Keynesian, ciki har da, da sauransu, George Akerlof, Janet Yellen, Gregory Mankiw, da Olivier Blanchard. Sun karɓi ƙa'idar tsammanin tunani da sauran masu cin gashin kansu ko sababbin ra'ayoyin gargajiya, kamar samfuran da ke amfani da microfoundations da inganta halayyar, amma a lokaci guda sun jaddada muhimmancin gazawar kasuwa daban-daban a cikin aikin tattalin arziki, kamar yadda Keynes ya yi. Ba aƙalla ba, sun ba da dalilai daban-daban waɗanda zasu iya bayyana fasalulluka da aka lura da farashi da tsananin albashi, yawanci ana sanya su zama fasalullukan ƙwayoyin ƙwayoyin, maimakon ɗauka kamar yadda yake a cikin tsofaffin salon Keynesian.

Sabuwar hadadden neoclassical

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Bayan shekaru da dama na tattaunawa mai zafi tsakanin Keynesians, masu ra'ayin kuɗi, sabbin masana tattalin arziki na gargajiya da sabbin masana tattalin arziki na Keynesian, wani tsari ya bayyana a shekarun 2000, wanda galibi ake kira sabon tsarin neoclassical . Ya haɗa tsammanin hankali da inganta tsarin sabuwar ka'idar gargajiya tare da sabon rawar Keynesian don taurin kai da sauran kurakuran kasuwa, kamar rashin cikakken bayani, a cikin kayayyaki, aiki, da kasuwannin bashi. An fahimci muhimmancin manufofin kuɗi wajen daidaita tattalin arziki , musamman ma wajen daidaita hauhawar farashin kayayyaki, haka kuma an fahimci dagewar da Keynesian ta yi cewa manufofin kuɗi na iya taka rawa mai tasiri wajen shafar yawan buƙatun jama'a . A tsarin aiki, haɗakarwar ta haifar da sabon nau'in samfuran da aka yi amfani da su, wanda aka sani da samfuran daidaitaccen tsarin stochastic general ma'auni (DSGE), waɗanda aka samo daga samfuran zagayowar kasuwanci na gaske amma an faɗaɗa su da sabbin fasaloli da yawa na Keynesian da sauran su. Waɗannan samfuran sun kasance masu amfani da tasiri wajen tsara manufofin kuɗi na zamani kuma yanzu sun zama manyan hanyoyin aiki a yawancin bankunan tsakiya.

Bayan rikicin kuɗi na 2008

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Bayan rikicin kuɗi na 2008, binciken tattalin arziki ya fi mai da hankali kan fahimtar da haɗa tsarin kuɗi cikin samfuran tattalin arziki mai faɗi, da kuma haskaka yadda matsaloli a ɓangaren kuɗi za su iya haifar da manyan koma bayan tattalin arziki. A cikin wannan da sauran sassan bincike, wahayi daga tattalin arzikin ɗabi'a ya fara taka muhimmiyar rawa a cikin ka'idar tattalin arziki ta yau da kullun. Haka kuma, bambancin da ke tsakanin wakilan tattalin arziki, misali, bambance-bambancen samun kudin shiga, yana taka rawa sosai a binciken tattalin arziki na baya-bayan nan. [27]

Sauran makarantu da hanyoyin

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Wasu makarantu ko yanayin tunani da ke magana game da wani salon tattalin arziki da ake yi a kuma ake yaɗawa daga ƙungiyoyin masana da aka san su sosai waɗanda suka shahara a duk duniya, sun haɗa da Makarantar Freiburg, Makarantar Lausanne, Makarantar Stockholm da Makarantar Tattalin Arziki ta Chicago . A shekarun 1970 da 1980, wani lokacin tattalin arziki na yau da kullun ana raba shi zuwa tsarin ruwan gishiri na waɗannan jami'o'in da ke gabar tekun Gabas da Yammacin Amurka, da kuma tsarin makarantar Freshwater, ko Chicago .

A cikin tattalin arziki na macro, akwai, a cikin tsari na gaba ɗaya na bayyanarsu ta tarihi a cikin adabi; tattalin arziki na gargajiya, tattalin arziki na neoclassical, tattalin arzikin Keynesian, haɗakar neoclassical, monetarism, tattalin arziki na zamani, tattalin arziki na sabon Keynesian da sabon haɗakar neoclassical . [28]

Baya ga ci gaban tunanin tattalin arziki na yau da kullun, ka'idoji daban-daban na tattalin arziki na madadin ko heterodox sun samo asali, suna sanya kansu a matsayin sabanin ka'idar gama gari. [29] Waɗannan sun haɗa da: [29]

  • Makarantar Austria, tana mai da hankali kan ayyukan ɗan adam, haƙƙin mallaka, da kuma 'yancin yin kwangila da mu'amala don samun tattalin arziki mai bunƙasa da nasara. [30] Haka kuma ya jaddada cewa ya kamata gwamnati ta taka rawa kaɗan gwargwadon iyawa (idan akwai wani rawa) a cikin tsara ayyukan tattalin arziki tsakanin ɓangarorin biyu masu hulɗa. [31] Friedrich Hayek da Ludwig von Mises su ne manyan wakilan makarantar Austria guda biyu.
  • Tattalin arzikin bayan-Keynesian ya fi mayar da hankali kan tsauraran matakan tattalin arziki da kuma hanyoyin daidaitawa. Gabaɗaya ana danganta shi da Jami'ar Cambridge da aikin Joan Robinson .
  • Tattalin arzikin muhalli kamar tattalin arzikin muhalli yana nazarin hulɗar da ke tsakanin tattalin arzikin ɗan adam da yanayin halittu da suke ciki, [32] amma sabanin tattalin arzikin muhalli yana ɗaukar matsayi na adawa da ƙa'idodin tattalin arziki na gabaɗaya. Babban bambanci tsakanin ƙananan fannoni biyu shine zato game da yiwuwar maye gurbin tsakanin jarin da aka yi da na halitta . [33]

Bugu da ƙari, wasu ci gaba sun haɗa da tattalin arzikin Marxian, tattalin arzikin kundin tsarin mulki, tattalin arzikin cibiyoyi, tattalin arzikin juyin halitta, ka'idar dogaro, tattalin arziki mai tsari, ka'idar tsarin duniya, kimiyyar tattalin arziki, kimiyyar tattalin arziki, tattalin arziki na mata da tattalin arzikin halittu .

Tattalin arzikin mata ya jaddada rawar da jinsi ke takawa a tattalin arziki, yana kalubalantar nazarin da ke sa jinsi ya zama ba a iya gani ko kuma wanda ke tallafawa tsarin tattalin arziki mai danne jinsi. Manufar ita ce a ƙirƙiri bincike kan tattalin arziki da kuma nazarin manufofi wanda zai haɗa kowa da kowa kuma ya san jinsi domin ƙarfafa daidaiton jinsi da kuma inganta walwalar ƙungiyoyin da aka ware.

Hanyar

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Binciken ka'ida

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ka'idar tattalin arziki ta asali ta dogara ne akan samfuran tattalin arziki na nazari. Lokacin ƙirƙirar ka'idoji, manufar ita ce a sami zato waɗanda aƙalla suke da sauƙi a cikin buƙatun bayanai, waɗanda suka fi daidai a cikin hasashe, kuma sun fi amfani wajen samar da ƙarin bincike fiye da ka'idojin da suka gabata. [34] Duk da cewa ka'idar tattalin arziki ta neoclassical ta ƙunshi tsarin ka'ida mai rinjaye ko ta al'ada da kuma tsarin hanyoyin aiki, ka'idar tattalin arziki kuma tana iya ɗaukar nau'in wasu mazhabobi na tunani kamar a cikin ka'idojin tattalin arziki na heterodox .

A fannin tattalin arziki mai zurfi, manyan ra'ayoyi sun haɗa da wadata da buƙata, rashin daidaito, ka'idar zaɓin tunani, farashin dama, ƙuntatawa a kasafin kuɗi, amfani, da ka'idar kamfani . Tsarin tattalin arziki na farko ya mayar da hankali kan yin koyi da alaƙar da ke tsakanin masu canji masu yawa, amma yayin da dangantakar ta bayyana tana canzawa akan lokaci, masana tattalin arziki na macro, gami da sabbin Keynesians, sun sake fasalin samfuran su da ƙananan tushe, inda ra'ayoyin tattalin arziki na micro suka taka muhimmiyar rawa.

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ "ECONOMICS | Meaning & Definition for UK English". Lexico.com. Archived from the original on 24 August 2022. Retrieved 2024-04-13.
  2. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  3. ↑ Kianpour, Mazaher; Kowalski, Stewart; Øverby, Harald (2021). "Systematically Understanding Cybersecurity Economics: A Survey". Sustainability. 13 (24). Bibcode:2021Sust...1313677K. doi:10.3390/su132413677. |hdl-access= requires |hdl= (help)
  4. ↑ Tarricone, Rosanna (2006). "Cost-of-illness analysis". Health Policy (in Turanci). 77 (1): 51–63. doi:10.1016/j.healthpol.2005.07.016. PMID 16139925.
  5. ↑ Hanushek, Eric A.; Woessmannr, Ludger (2007). "Economics of Education". Policy Research Working Papers. The World Bank. doi:10.1596/1813-9450-4122. Archived from the original on 6 January 2022. Retrieved 17 December 2020.
  6. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  7. ↑ Nelson, Julie A. (1995). "Feminism and Economics". Journal of Economic Perspectives. 9 (2): 131–148. doi:10.1257/jep.9.2.131. Empty citation (help)
  8. ↑ Iannaccone, Laurence R. (September 1998). "Introduction to the Economics of Religion" (PDF). Journal of Economic Literature. 36 (3): 1465–1495. JSTOR 2564806. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 February 2020. Retrieved 2022-07-01.
  9. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  10. 1 2 Mary Paley Marshall. Missing |author1= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  11. 1 2 Empty citation (help)
  12. 1 2 3 Backhouse, Roger E.; Medema, Steven (Winter 2009). "Retrospectives: On the Definition of Economics". Journal of Economic Perspectives. 23 (1): 221–233. doi:10.1257/jep.23.1.221. JSTOR 27648302.
  13. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  14. ↑ Seung-Yoon Lee (4 September 2014). "Ha-Joon Chang: Economics Is A Political Argument". huffpost.com. Huffington Post. Archived from the original on 19 October 2021.
  15. ↑ "Oikos Meaning in Bible – New Testament Greek Lexicon – New American Standard". biblestudytools.com (in Turanci). Archived from the original on 19 November 2021. Retrieved 2021-11-19.
  16. ↑ Jameson, Michael H. (2015-12-22). "houses, Greek". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics (in Turanci). doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.3169. ISBN 978-0-19-938113-5. Archived from the original on 19 November 2021. Retrieved 2021-11-19.
  17. ↑ Gordon, Barry J. (1964). "Aristotle and the Development of Value Theory". The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 78 (1): 115–128. doi:10.2307/1880547. ISSN 0033-5533. JSTOR 1880547.
  18. ↑ Bertholet, Auguste (2021). "Constant, Sismondi et la Pologne". Annales Benjamin Constant. 46: 78–81. Archived from the original on 12 May 2022. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
  19. ↑ Deardorff, Alan V. (2016). "Division of labor". Deardorffs' Glossary of International Economics. University of Michigan. Archived from the original on 16 March 2020. Retrieved 1 March 2012.
  20. ↑ Stigler, George J. (June 1951). "The Division of Labor Is Limited by the Extent of the Market" (PDF). Journal of Political Economy. 59 (3): 185–193. doi:10.1086/257075. JSTOR 1826433. S2CID 36014630. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 August 2016. Retrieved 26 August 2017.
  21. ↑ Stigler, George J. (December 1976). "The Successes and Failures of Professor Smith". Journal of Political Economy. 84 (6): 1199–1213. doi:10.1086/260508. JSTOR 1831274. S2CID 41691663.
  22. ↑ Smith 1776, Bk. II: ch. 1, 2, and 5.
  23. 1 2 3 Hicks, J.R. (April 1937). "Mr. Keynes and the "Classics": A Suggested Interpretation". Econometrica. 5 (2): 147–159. doi:10.2307/1907242. JSTOR 1907242.
  24. ↑ Tesfatsion, Leigh (Winter 2002). "Agent-Based Computational Economics: Growing Economies from the Bottom Up" (PDF). Artificial Life. 8 (1): 55–82. doi:10.1162/106454602753694765. PMID 12020421. S2CID 1345062. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 November 2020. Retrieved 24 June 2020.
  25. ↑ Bernanke, Ben (8 November 2002). "Remarks by Governor Ben S. Bernanke". The Federal Reserve Board. Archived from the original on 24 March 2020. Retrieved 22 February 2009.
  26. ↑ "Federal Reserve Board - Historical Approaches to Monetary Policy". Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System (in Turanci). 8 March 2018. Retrieved 29 October 2023.
  27. ↑ Guvenen, Fatih. "Macroeconomics with Heterogeneity: A Practical Guide" (PDF). www.nber.org. National Bureau of Economic Research. Retrieved 29 October 2023.
  28. ↑ Woodford, Michael (January 2008). "Convergence in Macroeconomics: Elements of the New Synthesis" (PDF). The New Consensus. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 December 2008. Retrieved 31 August 2021.
  29. 1 2 Lee, Frederic S. (2008). "Heterodox Economics". The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics: 1–7. doi:10.1057/978-1-349-95121-5_2487-1. ISBN 978-1-349-95121-5.
  30. ↑ "WHAT IS AUSTRIAN ECONOMICS?". 16 May 2014. Archived from the original on 23 October 2020. Retrieved February 13, 2022.
  31. ↑ "The Austrian Theory of Efficiency and the Role of Government". November 9, 2019. Archived from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 14 February 2022.
  32. ↑ Xepapadeas, Anastasios (2008). "Ecological Economics". The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics: 1–8. doi:10.1057/978-1-349-95121-5_2141-1. ISBN 978-1-349-95121-5.
  33. ↑ Berlin, D. I. W. (2006). "DIW Berlin: A Matter of Opinion: How Ecological and Neoclassical Environmental Economists Think about Sustainability and Economics". www.diw.de (in Jamusanci). Retrieved 29 October 2023.
  34. ↑ Friedman 1953.
  1. ↑ "Capital" in Smith's usage includes fixed capital and circulating capital. The latter includes wages and labour maintenance, money, and inputs from land, mines, and fisheries associated with production.[22]
  2. ↑ "This science indicates the cases in which commerce is truly productive, where whatever is gained by one is lost by another, and where it is profitable to all; it also teaches us to appreciate its several processes, but simply in their results, at which it stops. Besides this knowledge, the merchant must also understand the processes of his art. He must be acquainted with the commodities in which he deals, their qualities and defects, the countries from which they are derived, their markets, the means of their transportation, the values to be given for them in exchange, and the method of keeping accounts. The same remark is applicable to the agriculturist, to the manufacturer, and to the practical man of business; to acquire a thorough knowledge of the causes and consequences of each phenomenon, the study of political economy is essentially necessary to them all; and to become expert in his particular pursuit, each one must add thereto a knowledge of its processes." Samfuri:Harv
  3. ↑ "And when we submit the definition in question to this test, it is seen to possess deficiencies which, so far from being marginal and subsidiary, amount to nothing less than a complete failure to exhibit either the scope or the significance of the most central generalisations of all." Samfuri:Harv
  4. ↑ "The conception we have adopted may be described as analytical. It does not attempt to pick out certain kinds of behaviour, but focuses attention on a particular aspect of behaviour, the form imposed by the influence of scarcity. Samfuri:Harv
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