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Hail

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Daga Wikipedia, Insakulofidiya ta kyauta.
hail
type of meteorological phenomenon (en) Fassara
Bayanai
Ƙaramin ɓangare na Yayafi
Name (en) Fassara grêlon
Color (en) Fassara Fari
Has cause (en) Fassara atmospheric convection (en) Fassara da cumulonimbus (mul) Fassara
Has immediate cause (en) Fassara hailing (en) Fassara
Babban dutse mai ƙanƙara, kimanin 6 cm (2.4 in) in) a diamita

Kankara mai ƙanƙara (Hail) wani nau'in hazo ne na yanayi wanda yake saukowa daga sararin samaniya a matsayin ƙaƙƙarfan abu.[1] Ya bambanta da ƙwayoyin ƙanƙara (waɗanda ake kira "sleet" a Turancin Amurka), duk da cewa sau da yawa ana rikita su da juna.[2]Hail yana ƙunshe da ƙwallaye ko dunƙulen ƙanƙara marasa tsari, kuma kowanne daga cikinsu ana kiransa dutsen ƙanƙara (hailstone).[3]Ƙwayoyin ƙanƙara sukan faɗo a lokacin sanyi, yayin da samuwar hail ke raguwa sosai idan yanayin zafin saman ƙasa ya yi ƙasa.

Ba kamar sauran nau'ikan hazo na ƙanƙarar ruwa ba, kamar graupel (wanda ya ƙunshi ƙanƙarar rime), ƙwayoyin ƙanƙara (waɗanda suka fi ƙanƙanta kuma suna da ɗan haske), da dusar ƙanƙara (wadda ta ƙunshi ƙananan ƙwayoyin ƙanƙara masu sifar lu'ulu'u ko allurai masu laushi), duwatsun ƙanƙara (hailstones) galibi suna da faɗin tsakanin milimita 5 (inci 0.2) zuwa santimita 15 (inci 6).[1] Lambar rahoton METAR ta ƙasa da ƙasa da ake amfani da ita wajen nuna hail mai faɗin milimita 5 (inci 0.20) ko fiye ita ce GR, yayin da ake amfani da GS wajen ƙananan duwatsun ƙanƙara da kuma graupel.

Ana iya samun ƙanƙara (hail) a lokacin yawancin tsawa, domin gajimaren cumulonimbus ne ke samar da ita,[4] Haka kuma, tana iya samuwa a cikin nisan 2 nmi (kilomita 3.7) daga babban guguwar da ta haifar da ita. Samuwar ƙanƙara tana buƙatar yanayi mai ƙarfi na motsin iska zuwa sama a cikin guguwar tsawar, makamancin yanayin da ake samu wajen samuwar guguwar iska mai karkarwa (tornado), tare da raguwar tsayin matakin daskarewa.

A yankunan tsakiyar latitiyu, ƙanƙara tana samuwa ne musamman a kusa da cikin nahiyoyi, yayin da a yankunan wurare masu zafi (tropics), samuwarta ta fi kasancewa a wurare masu tsayin ƙasa mai yawa.

Akwai hanyoyin gano tsawar da ke samar da ƙanƙara ta hanyar amfani da hotunan tauraron ɗan Adam na yanayi da kuma hotunan radar na yanayi. Gabaɗaya, duwatsun ƙanƙara (hailstones) suna faɗowa da saurin da ke ƙaruwa yayin da girmansu ke ƙaruwa. Sai dai wasu abubuwa masu rikitarwa, kamar narkewa, gogayya da iska, iska mai ƙarfi, da mu'amala da ruwan sama da sauran duwatsun ƙanƙara, na iya rage saurin faɗuwarsu yayin da suke ratsawa cikin sararin samaniyar Duniya.

Ana bayar da gargadin mummunan yanayi idan duwatsun ƙanƙara sun kai girman da zai iya haifar da barna, domin suna iya jawo babbar illa ga gine-gine da sauran abubuwan da mutane suka ƙera, musamman kuma ga amfanin gona na manoma.

Matsakaicin dutse ya fadi a ƙauyen Basuki Bihari a ranar 29 ga Afrilu 2026.

Ma'anar

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Duk wani tsawa da ke haifar da ƙanƙara da ta kai ƙasa an san shi da ƙanshin ƙanƙarar.[5] Ana ɗaukar lu'ulu'u na kankara tare da diamita na >5 mm (0.20 in) in) a matsayin dutse mai ƙanƙara.[6] Dutsen ƙanƙara na iya girma zuwa 15 cm (6 in) in) kuma yana da nauyin fiye da 0.5 kg (1.1 lb) . [7]

Ba kamar ƙwayoyin kankara ba, ana yawan yin dutse a kan layi [8] kuma yana iya zama mara kyau kuma an haɗa shi tare.  [ana buƙatar hujja]Hail ya ƙunshi kankara mai haske ko sauyawa na kankara mai tsabta da mai haske aƙalla 1 mm (0.039 in) in) kauri, wanda aka ajiye a kan dutsen hailstone yayin da yake tafiya girgije, an dakatar da shi sama da iska tare da motsi mai ƙarfi har sai nauyinsa ya shawo kan updraft kuma ya faɗi ƙasa. Kodayake diamita na ƙanƙara ya bambanta, a Amurka, matsakaicin lura da ƙanƙarar da ke lalacewa yana tsakanin 1 in (2.5 cm) in) da girman Kwallon golf 1.75 in (4.4 cm) in). [9]

Duwatsu masu girma fiye da 2 centimetres (0.79 in) in) yawanci ana ɗaukar su da girma don haifar da lalacewa. Ofishin Kula da Yanayi na Kanada yana ba da gargadi mai tsanani lokacin da ake sa ran ƙanƙara ko sama.[10] Ofishin Kula da Yanayi na Amurka yana da ƙofar diamita 1 in (2.5 cm) a (2.5 , wanda ya fara aiki a watan Janairun 2010, ƙaruwa a kan ƙofar da ta gabata na 0.75 in (1.9 cm) a (1.9 . [11] Sauran ƙasashe suna da ƙofofi daban-daban bisa ga ƙanƙara na gida; alal misali, yankunan da ke shuka inabi na iya samun mummunar tasiri ta ƙananan ƙanƙarar. Dutsen ƙanƙara na iya zama babba ko ƙananan, dangane da yadda ƙarfin updraft yake: ƙanƙarar ƙanƙanta tana samar da ƙananan ƙanƙari fiye da ƙanƙanin ƙanƙaru mai ƙarfi (kamar supercells), kamar yadda ƙanƙarin da ya fi ƙarfi a cikin guguwa mai ƙarfi zai iya riƙe manyan ƙanƙwalwa sama.

Kafawa

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Girgizar ƙanƙara a cikin girgije mai ƙarfi, musamman waɗanda ke da tsananin updrafts, babban abun ciki na ruwa, babban tsaye, manyan ɗigon ruwa, kuma inda wani ɓangare mai kyau na girgizar ƙasa yana daskarewa (0 °C (32 °F) ° C; 32 ° F). [6] Wadannan nau'ikan updrafts masu karfi na iya nuna kasancewar guguwa.[12] Girman ƙanƙara yana da tasiri ta hanyar dalilai kamar tsawo mafi girma, ƙananan yankuna masu daskarewa, da shear iska.[13]

Yanayin dutsen ƙanƙara

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Shafin hawan dutse

Like other precipitation in cumulonimbus clouds, hail begins as water droplets. As the droplets rise and the temperature goes below freezing, they become supercooled water and will freeze on contact with condensation nuclei. A cross-section through a large hailstone shows an onion-like structure. This means that the hailstone is made of thick and translucent layers, alternating with layers that are thin, white and opaque. Former theory suggested that hailstones were subjected to multiple descents and ascents, falling into a zone of humidity and refreezing as they were uplifted.[ana buƙatar hujja][<span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2022)">citation needed</span>] This up and down motion was thought to be responsible for the successive layers of the hailstone. New research, based on theory as well as field study, has shown this is not necessarily true.[ana buƙatar hujja]

Hawan guguwar, tare da saurin iska mai saurin gudu har zuwa 110 mph (180 km/h) km / h), [14] yana hura dutsen ƙanƙara a cikin girgije. Yayin da dutsen ƙanƙara ya hau, yana wucewa cikin yankunan girgije inda yawan danshi da ɗigon ruwa mai sanyi ya bambanta. Girman dutsen dutse yana canzawa dangane da bambancin danshi da ɗigon ruwa mai sanyaya da ya haɗu da shi. Yawan karuwar waɗannan ɗigon ruwa wani abu ne na ci gaban dutsen ƙanƙara. Lokacin da dutsen ƙanƙara ya motsa cikin wani yanki tare da babban taro na ɗigon ruwa, yana kama ƙarshen kuma yana samun layin haske. Idan dutsen ƙanƙara ya koma cikin wani yanki inda yawancin tururin ruwa yake, yana samun wani nau'i na farin kankara.[15]

Hadari mai tsanani da ke dauke da ƙanƙara na iya nuna launi mai launin kore.[16]

Bugu da ƙari, saurin dutsen ƙanƙara ya dogara da matsayinsa a cikin girgije da nauyinsa.Wannan yana ƙayyade bambancin kauri na yadudduka na dutsen ƙanƙara. Yawan karuwa na ɗigon ruwa mai sanyaya a kan dutsen ƙanƙara ya dogara da saurin dangi tsakanin waɗannan ɗigon ruwa da dutsen ƙenƙara kanta. Wannan yana nufin cewa gabaɗaya manyan duwatsun ƙanƙara za su samar da ɗan nisa daga mafi ƙarfi, inda za su iya wuce ƙarin lokaci girma.[15] Yayin da dutsen ƙanƙara ke girma, yana fitar da zafi mai ɓoye, wanda ke kiyaye waje a cikin ruwa. Saboda yana fuskantar "girma mai laushi", Layer na waje yana mai mannewa (watau mafi mannewa), don haka dutse guda ɗaya na iya girma ta hanyar haɗuwa da wasu ƙananan dutse, yana samar da babban abu tare da siffar da ba daidai ba.[17]

Hail kuma na iya fuskantar "girma mai bushe", wanda zafin da aka saki ta hanyar daskarewa bai isa ya ci gaba da kasancewa a cikin yanayin ruwa ba. Hail da ke faruwa a wannan hanyar ya bayyana ba shi da kyau saboda ƙananan kumfa na iska waɗanda suka makale a cikin dutse yayin saurin daskarewa. Wadannan kumfa suna haɗuwa kuma suna tserewa a lokacin yanayin "girma mai laushi", kuma dutsen ƙanƙara ya fi bayyana. Yanayin girma don dutse mai ƙanƙara na iya canzawa a duk lokacin da yake ci gaba, kuma wannan na iya haifar da yadudduka daban-daban a cikin ɓangaren dutse mai haɗari.

Dutsen ƙanƙara zai ci gaba da tashi a cikin tsawa har sai ba za a iya tallafawa ta hanyar updraft ba. Wannan na iya ɗaukar aƙalla minti 30, bisa ga ƙarfin updrafts a cikin guguwar da ke haifar da tsawa, wanda samansa yawanci ya fi kilomita 10 tsawo.   Daga nan sai ya faɗi zuwa ƙasa yayin da yake ci gaba da girma, bisa ga irin wannan matakai, har sai ya bar girgije. Daga baya zai fara narkewa yayin da yake wucewa cikin iska sama da zafin sanyi.[18]

Babban guguwa a Thakurgaon, Arewacin Bangladesh (Afrilu 2022)

Don haka, hanya ta musamman a cikin tsawa ta isa ta bayyana tsarin nau'in dutse. Halin da za a iya tattauna hanyoyi da yawa shine a cikin tsawa mai yawa, inda za'a iya fitar da dutsen dutse daga saman tantanin "mahaifiyar" kuma a kama shi a cikin updraft na tantanin "yar" mai tsanani. Wannan, duk da haka, lamari ne na musamman.[15]

Abubuwan da ke da alaƙa da haila

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Hail ya fi yawa a cikin ciki na nahiyar na tsakiyar latitudes, kamar yadda haɓakar hail ya fi dacewa lokacin da matakin daskarewa ya kasance ƙasa da tsawo na 11,000 ft (3,400 m) ft (3,400 . [19] Motsi iska mai bushewa cikin tsawa mai ƙarfi a kan nahiyoyi na iya ƙara yawan ƙanƙara ta hanyar inganta sanyaya, wanda ke rage matakin daskarewa na girgije, yana ba da ƙanƙarar ƙarami don girma. Dangane da haka, ƙanƙara ba ta da yawa a cikin wurare masu zafi duk da yawan tsawa fiye da tsakiyar latitudes saboda yanayin da ke kan wurare masu zafi yana da dumi a kan tsawo mafi girma. Hail a cikin wurare masu zafi yana faruwa galibi a tsaunuka masu tsawo.

Gaisuwa a kan tashar jiragen ruwa

A Arewacin Amurka, hail ya fi yawa a yankin da Colorado, Nebraska, da Wyoming suka hadu, wanda aka fi sani da "Hail Alley".[20] Girgizar ƙasa a wannan yankin tana faruwa tsakanin watanni na Maris da Oktoba a lokacin rana da maraice, tare da yawancin abubuwan da suka faru daga Mayu zuwa Satumba. Cheyenne, Wyoming ita ce birni mafi yawan ƙanƙara a Arewacin Amurka tare da matsakaicin tara zuwa goma a kowane kakar.[21] A arewacin wannan yanki kuma kawai a cikin iska na Rocky Mountains shine yankin Hailstorm Alley na Alberta, wanda kuma ke fuskantar karuwar abubuwan da suka faru na ƙanƙara.

Girgizar ƙanƙara ta zama ruwan dare a yankuna da yawa na Kudancin Amurka, musamman a cikin latitudes masu matsakaici. yankin tsakiya na Argentina, wanda ya kai daga Yankin Mendoza zuwa gabas zuwa Córdoba, yana fuskantar wasu guguwa mafi yawa a duniya, tare da guguwa 10-30 a kowace shekara a matsakaici.[22] Yankin Patagonia na kudancin Argentina kuma yana ganin guguwa akai-akai, kodayake wannan na iya zama wani ɓangare saboda graupel (ƙaramin ƙanƙara) ana kiranta a matsayin ƙanƙarar a wannan yankin mai sanyi.[22] Yankin iyaka uku tsakanin jihohin Brazil na Paraná, Santa Catarina, da Argentina, a kudancin Brazil wani yanki ne da aka sani da lalacewar guguwa.[23] Girgizar ƙanƙara ta zama ruwan dare a wasu sassan Paraguay, Uruguay, da Bolivia waɗanda ke kan iyaka da yankunan ƙanƙarar ƙanƙanta na arewacin Argentina.[24] Babban mitar guguwa a cikin waɗannan yankuna na Kudancin Amurka an danganta shi da tilasta wa yankin na convection, haɗe da jigilar danshi daga Amazon da rashin kwanciyar hankali da aka haifar ta hanyar bambancin zafin jiki tsakanin farfajiya da yanayin sama.[22] A Colombia, biranen Bogotá da Medellín suma suna ganin guguwa akai-akai saboda tsayin da suke da shi. Kudancin Chile kuma yana ganin hawan sama mai ɗorewa daga tsakiyar Afrilu zuwa Oktoba.

Misali na ƙwanƙwasawa guda uku: ƙwanƙolin ƙwanƙwalwa (wanda kibiya ta nuna) a bayan ja da fari na tsawa suna da alaƙa da ƙanƙara a cikin guguwar.

Binciken ɗan gajeren lokaci

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Radar yanayi kayan aiki ne mai amfani sosai don gano kasancewar tsawa mai samar da ƙanƙara. Koyaya, dole ne a haɗa bayanan radar ta hanyar ilimin yanayin yanayi na yanzu wanda zai iya ba da damar mutum ya ƙayyade idan yanayin yanzu yana da kyau ga ci gaban hail.

Girma da saurin ƙarshe

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Dutsen ƙanƙara da ke da girman daga 'yan millimeters zuwa sama da santimita a diamita

Girman dutsen ƙanƙara ya fi ƙayyadewa ta hanyar auna diamita tare da mai mulki. Idan babu mai mulki, ana kimanta girman dutse ta hanyar kwatanta girmansa da na sanannun abubuwa, kamar tsabar kudi.[25] Amfani da abubuwa kamar ƙwai na kaza, wake, da marmara don kwatanta girman dutse ba daidai ba ne, saboda girman su daban-daban. Kungiyar Burtaniya, TORRO, ita ma tana da ma'auni ga dutsen ƙanƙara da guguwa.[26]

Babban dutse mai ƙanƙara tare da zobba

Saurin ƙarshe na ƙanƙara, ko saurin da ƙanƙarar ke faɗuwa lokacin da ta buga ƙasa, ya bambanta. An kiyasta cewa dutse mai tsawo na 8 cm (3.1 in)" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cvt","href":"./Template:Cvt"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"9"},"2":{"wt":"m/s"},"3":{"wt":"mph"}},"i":0}}]}' data-ve-no-generated-contents="true" id="mwAak" typeof="mw:Transclusion">9" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cvt","href":"./Template:Cvt"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"1"},"2":{"wt":"cm"},"3":{"wt":"in"}},"i":0}}]}' data-ve-no-generated-contents="true" id="mwAag" typeof="mw:Transclusion">1 in) a diamita ya faɗi 9 m / s (20 , yayin da duwatsu masu girman 8 in) a Diamita suka faɗi a cikin 48 m/s (110 mph) m / s (110 mph). Saurin dutse ya dogara da girman dutse, ma'aunin jan shi, motsi na iska da yake faɗuwa, haɗuwa da ruwan sama ko wasu duwatsu, da narkewa yayin da duwatsu suka faɗuwa ta cikin yanayi mai zafi. Kamar yadda dutsen ƙanƙara ba cikakkun sassan ba ne, yana da wahala a lissafa ainihin ƙimar jan su - kuma, ta haka ne, saurin su.[27]

Kwatanta girman abubuwa

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A Amurka, Hukumar Kula da Yanayi ta Kasa ta ba da rahoton girman ƙanƙara a matsayin kwatankwacin abubuwa na yau da kullun. Dutsen ƙanƙara da ya fi inci 1 a diamita ana nuna su a matsayin "mai tsanani".[28]

NWS Shafin Juyawa na Haɗaɗi
Diamita (inches) Abu na yau da kullun
0.25 - 0.375 Fuskar
0.50 Ƙananan Marmara
0.75 Penny
0.88 Nickel
1.00 (15/16") Kashi na huɗu
1.25 Rabin Dollar
1.50 Walnut / Ping BallPing Pong Ball
1.75 Kwallon Golf
2.00 Lime
2.50 Kwallon Tennis
2.75 Kwallon Baseball
3.00 Babban Apple
4.00 Kwallon ƙafa
4.50 'Ya'yan itace
4.75 - 5.00 CD / CD na kwamfutaDVD
Babban dutse da aka rubuta a Amurka

Rubuce-rubucen gaisuwa

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Megacryometeors, manyan duwatsun kankara waɗanda ba su da alaƙa da tsawa, ba a san su a hukumance ta Ƙungiyar Meteorological ta Duniya a matsayin "hail", waɗanda ke tattare da kankara da ke da alaƙa le tsawa, sabili da haka ba a ba da rikodin matsanancin halaye na megacryometeores a matsayin rikodin ƙanƙara ba.

Hadari

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Lalacewar motoci saboda guguwar ƙanƙara da ta shafi yankin Dallas, Texas a ranar 8 ga Mayu, 1926, tare da ƙanƙarar da ta kai inci 4.2 (11 a diamita [29]

Hail na iya haifar da mummunar lalacewa, musamman ga motoci, jirgin sama, fitilu, gine-ginen rufin gilashi, dabbobi, kuma mafi yawanci, amfanin gona.[21] Lalacewar ƙanƙara a rufin sau da yawa ba a lura da shi ba har sai an ga ƙarin lalacewar tsari, kamar ɓarkewa ko fashewa. Yana da wuyar gane lalacewar ƙanƙara a kan rufin shingled da rufin shimfiɗa, amma duk rufin suna da nasu matsalolin gano lalacewar hawan.[30] Rufin ƙarfe yana da tsayayya da lalacewar ƙanƙara, amma yana iya tara lalacewar kayan kwalliya ta hanyar tsagewa da lalace. A cikin 2023, ƙanƙara ta kashe Amurka dala biliyan 46 a cikin lalacewar motoci, rufi, da amfanin gona, a cewar Cibiyar Inshora don Kasuwanci da Tsaro na Gida (IBHS). [31]

Hail yana daya daga cikin manyan haɗarin tsawa ga jirgin sama.[32] Lokacin da dutsen ƙanƙara ya wuce 0.5 in (13 mm) in (13 a diamita, jiragen sama na iya lalacewa sosai a cikin seconds.[33] Dutsen ƙanƙara da ke tarawa a ƙasa na iya zama haɗari ga jirgin sama mai saukowa. Hail matsala ce ta yau da kullun ga direbobin motoci, suna lalata abin hawa sosai kuma suna fashewa ko ma suna fashe gilashin iska da windows sai dai idan an ajiye su a cikin garage ko an rufe su da kayan kariya. Alkama, masara, soya, da taba sune amfanin gona mafi mahimmanci ga lalacewar ƙanƙara. Hail yana daya daga cikin haɗarin da ya fi tsada a Kanada.

Tattarawa

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Hawan dutse da aka tara a Sydney, Australia (Afrilu 2015)

An bayar da rahoton zurfin har zuwa 18 in (0.46 m) in (0.46 . Yankin da aka rufe da ƙanƙara da aka tara gabaɗaya yayi kama da wanda aka rufe da dusar ƙanƙarar da aka tara kuma duk wani babban tarin ƙanƙanta yana da irin tasirin ƙuntatawa kamar tarin dusar ƙara, duk da cewa a kan karamin yanki, akan sufuri da ababen more rayuwa.[34] Girgizar da aka tara na iya haifar da ambaliyar ruwa ta hanyar toshe magudanar ruwa, kuma ana iya ɗaukar ƙanƙara a cikin ruwan ambaliyar, yana juyawa zuwa dusar ƙanƙarar da aka ajiye a ƙananan tsaunuka.

A wasu lokuta masu ban sha'awa, tsawa na iya zama tsaye ko kusan haka yayin da yake samar da ƙanƙara mai yawa kuma zurfin tarawa yana faruwa; wannan yana faruwa a yankunan tsaunuka, kamar 29 ga Yuli, 2010 na ƙafar ƙanƙarar ƙanƙanta a Boulder County, Colorado. A ranar 5 ga Yuni, 2015, ƙanƙara har zuwa zurfin ƙafa huɗu ta faɗi a kan wani birni a Denver, Colorado. Dutsen ƙanƙara, wanda aka bayyana a tsakanin girman ƙudan zuma da ƙwallon ping pong, an haɗa su da ruwan sama da iska mai ƙarfi. Girgizar ta fadi a cikin yanki daya kawai, ta bar yankin da ke kewaye ba tare da taɓa shi ba. Ya fadi na sa'a daya da rabi tsakanin 10:00 na yamma da 11:30 na yamma.  Wani masanin yanayi na National Weather Service a Boulder ya ce, "Wannan abu ne mai ban sha'awa sosai. Mun ga guguwar guguwa. Ya samar da ƙanƙara mai yawa a cikin ƙaramin yanki ɗaya. "Tractors da aka yi amfani da su don share yankin sun cika fiye da 30 dump truck load na ƙanƙara.

Hannun riƙe haila a cikin wani strawberry patch

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ "hail". nationalgeographic.org (in Turanci). National Geographic Society. 21 January 2011. Archived from the original on 22 February 2021. Retrieved 14 January 2021.
  2. ↑ "What's the difference between hail, sleet, and freezing rain?". The Straight Dope. 1999-08-06. Archived from the original on 2014-02-02. Retrieved 2016-07-23.
  3. ↑ "hailstone". Merriam-Webster. Archived from the original on 2013-01-16. Retrieved 2013-01-23.
  4. ↑ "Hail". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. 2009. Archived from the original on 2010-07-25. Retrieved 2009-07-15.
  5. ↑ "Hailstorm". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. 2009. Archived from the original on 2011-06-06. Retrieved 2009-08-29.
  6. 1 2 "Hail". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. 2009. Archived from the original on 2010-07-25. Retrieved 2009-07-15. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "gloss" defined multiple times with different content.
  7. ↑ "Aggregate hailstone". National Severe Storms Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-04-23. Archived from the original on 2009-08-10. Retrieved 2009-07-15.
  8. ↑ "Hail Basics". NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory (in Turanci). Archived from the original on 2023-10-11. Retrieved 2024-04-14. Hailstones can have layers of clear and cloudy ice if the hailstone encounters different temperature and liquid water content conditions in the thunderstorm. The conditions experienced by the hailstone can change as it passes horizontally across or near an updraft.
  9. ↑ Jewell, Ryan; Brimelow, Julian (2004-08-17). "P9.5 Evaluation of an Alberta Hail Growth Model Using Severe Hail Proximity Soundings in the United States" (PDF). spc.noaa.gov. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2009-05-07. Retrieved 2009-07-15.
  10. ↑ "Severe Thunderstorm criteria". ec.gc.ca. Meteorological Service of Canada, Environment Canada. November 3, 2010. Archived from the original on August 5, 2012. Retrieved 2011-05-12.
  11. ↑ "NEW 1 Inch Hail Criteria". noaa.gov. US: National Weather Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. January 4, 2010. Archived from the original on September 7, 2011. Retrieved 2011-05-12.
  12. ↑ "Hail..." Columbia, South Carolina: National Weather Service Forecast Office. 2009-01-27. Archived from the original on 2009-04-12. Retrieved 2009-08-28.
  13. ↑ "Forecasting Hail". theweatherprediction.com. Archived from the original on 2020-08-01. Retrieved 2018-08-08.
  14. ↑ "Hail". ncar.ucar.edu. National Center for Atmospheric Research, University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. 2008. Archived from the original on 2010-05-27. Retrieved 2009-07-18.
  15. 1 2 3 Nelson, Stephan P. (August 1983). "The Influence of Storm Flow Struce on Hail Growth". Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences. 40: 1965–1983. Bibcode:1983JAtS...40.1965N. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1983)040<1965:TIOSFS>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1520-0469. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Nelson" defined multiple times with different content.
  16. ↑ Gallagher, Frank W. III (October 2000). "Distant Green Thunderstorms – Frazer's Theory Revisited". Journal of Applied Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. 39 (10): 1754. Bibcode:2000JApMe..39.1754G. doi:10.1175/1520-0450-39.10.1754.
  17. ↑ Brimelow, Julian C.; Reuter, Gerhard W.; Poolman, Eugene R. (2002). "Modeling Maximum Hail Size in Alberta Thunderstorms". Weather and Forecasting. 17 (5): 1048–1062. Bibcode:2002WtFor..17.1048B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(2002)017<1048:MMHSIA>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1520-0434.
  18. ↑ Marshall, Jacque (2000-04-10). "Hail Fact Sheet". University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Archived from the original on 2009-10-15. Retrieved 2009-07-15.
  19. ↑ Wolf, Pete (2003-01-16). "Meso-Analyst Severe Weather Guide". University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Archived from the original on 2003-03-20. Retrieved 2009-07-16.
  20. ↑ Munoz, Rene (2000-06-02). "Fact Sheet on Hail". University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Archived from the original on 2009-10-15. Retrieved 2009-07-18.
  21. 1 2 Doesken, Nolan J. (April 1994). "Hail, Hail, Hail ! The Summertime Hazard of Eastern Colorado" (PDF). Colorado Climate. 17 (7). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-11-25. Retrieved 2009-07-18. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Nolanhail" defined multiple times with different content.
  22. 1 2 3 Bruick, Zachary S.; Rasmussen, Kristen L.; Cecil, Daniel J. (2019-11-06). "South American Hailstorm Characteristics and Environments". Monthly Weather Review. American Meteorological Society. 147 (12): 4289–4304. doi:10.1175/MWR-D-19-0011.1. PMC 7241597. PMID 32440028.
  23. ↑ Beal, Alexandra; Hallak, Ricardo; Martins, Leila D.; Martins, Jorge A.; Biz, Guilherme; Rudke, Anderson P.; Tarley, Cesar R. T. (2020-04-01). "Climatology of hail in the triple border Paraná, Santa Catarina (Brazil) and Argentina". Atmospheric Research. 234. Bibcode:2020AtmRe.23404747B. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2019.104747. Archived from the original on 2024-04-14. Retrieved 2024-06-28.
  24. ↑ "Climatology of destructive hailstorms in Brazil". 2020-10-01. Retrieved 2024-06-28.
  25. ↑ "NeRAIN Data Site-Measuring Hail". Nebraska Rainfall Assessment Information Network, Nebraska Department of Natural Resources. 2009. Archived from the original on 2009-03-02. Retrieved 2009-08-29.
  26. ↑ "Hail Scale". torro.org.uk. The TORnado Storm Research Organization. 2009. Archived from the original on 2009-04-22. Retrieved 2009-08-28.
  27. ↑ "Hail Basics". National Severe Storms Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2006-11-15. Archived from the original on 2009-05-06. Retrieved 2009-08-28.
  28. ↑ National Weather Service (July 26, 2021). "National Weather Service Instruction 10 - 1605" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on June 27, 2023. Retrieved June 26, 2023.
  29. ↑ Cline, Joseph L. (May 1926). "Hailstorm at Dallas, Tex., May 8, 1926". Monthly Weather Review. 54 (5): 216. Bibcode:1926MWRv...54..216C. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1926)54<216a:HADTM>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2025-08-23.
  30. ↑ "Hail Damage to Roofs". adjustersinternational.com. Adjusting Today. Archived from the original on 2015-10-16. Retrieved 2009-12-11.
  31. ↑ "More damaging than tornadoes, hail may finally get the scientific attention it deserves". www.science.org (in Turanci). Retrieved 2025-02-26.
  32. ↑ Field, P.R.; Hand, W.H.; Cappelluti, G.; et al. (November 2010). "Hail Threat Standardisation" (PDF). European Aviation Safety Agency. RP EASA.2008/5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-12-07.
  33. ↑ "Hazards". aviationweather.ws. Federal Aviation Administration. 2009. Archived from the original on 2010-03-25. Retrieved 2009-08-29.
  34. ↑ Schlatter, Thomas W.; Doesken, Nolan (September 2010). "Deep Hail: Tracking an Elusive Phenomenon". Weatherwise. Taylor & Francis. 63: 35–41. Bibcode:2010Weawi..63e..35S. doi:10.1080/00431672.2010.503841. ISSN 0043-1672. S2CID 191481064. Archived from the original on 2022-10-03. Retrieved 2015-08-09.
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